Concerned that the headline-grabbing news of nonnative giant snakes invading Florida's Everglades and possibly more of the U.S. is becoming politcized and ignoring science, the United States Association of Reptile Keepers (USARK) is speaking out.

Several people have written to NatGeo News Watch in response to our early posts, Congress weighs ban on importation of pet pythons and Nine giant invasive snake species threaten U.S. ecosystems, pointing out that the people who know most about boas and pythons, the pet reptile owners and traders, have different perspectives about what's needed to prevent and reverse the problem of the snakes breeding in the wild.

Written testimony handed to the U.S. Congress last week by Andrew Wyatt, president of USARK, presents the analysis of the reptile industry, which he says is not only opposed to releasing the animals into the American wilderness but is promoting ownership accreditation, teaching best practices, and helping to extract alien snakes already established in the wild

Responsible ownership and trade

"USARK represents the highly sophisticated commercial production of captive bred reptiles in the United States. We are a science and education based advocacy for the responsible private ownership of, and trade in reptiles. USARK endorses caging standards, sound husbandry, escape prevention protocols, and an integrated approach to vital conservation issues," Wyatt said in his testimony.

"The health of these animals, public safety, and maintaining ecological integrity are our primary concerns."

"Our goal is to facilitate cooperation between government agencies, the scientific community, and the private sector in order to produce policy proposals that will effectively address important husbandry and conservation issues. The health of these animals, public safety, and maintaining ecological integrity are our primary concerns.

"Over the past 60 years, the practice of keeping reptiles has changed from an obscure hobby to an incredibly widespread and mainstream part of the American experience. Reptiles have become intensely popular and are now present in millions of American households (1 in every 25 U.S. households has 1 or more reptiles). They now permeate pop culture, movies and advertising. Who doesn't know the Geico Gecko?"

U.S.$3 billion industry

From early beginnings in the pet trade, herpetoculture, the practice of breeding reptiles and amphibians, has grown into a sophisticated and independent $3 billion annual industry, Wyatt said.

"Herpetoculturists produce high quality captive bred animals for collectors, research, zoos, museums, TV & film...These animals can be valued at over $100,000 for individual specimens.

"Millions of dollars flow into the national economy from the reptile industry. It is interlaced and interconnected with all levels of economies. Purchases of equipment, dry goods, bedding and cages channel money into U.S. manufacturing.

"Millions of dollars go to support American agriculture with purchases of food, including rodents, grain, bedding, vegetables and prepared diets. Millions of dollars more support airlines and parcel shippers."

The reptile industry in the United States accounts for 82 percent of the worldwide export and trade in high quality captive bred reptiles, Wyatt added. Thousands of American small businesses and their employees depend on
the industry.

Reptile Nation

"Reptiles are an animal interest that have captivated an incredibly diverse cross section of the American demographics; from scientists to school children, Wall Street bankers to construction workers, conservationists, attorneys, teachers, rock stars, actors and even politicians.

"Your friends and neighbors keep reptiles. Some member of your family keeps, or has kept, reptiles. Collectively we refer to this demographic as the Reptile Nation, comprising more than five million Americans. All are intensely interested in protecting their legal rights to possess and work with reptiles."

USARK is concerned about feral Burmese pythons in the Everglades and the impact they could potentially have on the ecosystem of South Florida, Wyatt said. "We recognize the problem and have committed to be part of the solution."

Python removal program

USARK members helped create a python removal program in coordination with Florida Fish & Wildlife Conservation Commission (FWC) and were the first to be licensed to remove pythons from state lands in South Florida, Wyatt said.

"USARK has actively appealed to the U.S. Department of the Interior to open up Everglades National Park to a removal program modeled on the Florida program.

"We do not believe captured pythons should be re-released back into the Park for any reason."

USARK has offered $10,000 to United States Fish & Wildlife Service to establish the basis of a program to get pythons out of Florida and into qualified hands that can securely and humanely house them for the rest of their natural lives, Wyatt said.

"The federal government has failed to capitalize on this vast pool of knowledge and experience to most effectively address the issue of feral Burmese pythons in the Everglades National Park and South Florida."

"USARK has great expertise in regards to pythons; how to find them, where to find them, reproductive behaviors, predation, safe secure maintenance in captivity... etc. Unfortunately, in our view, the federal government has failed to capitalize on this vast pool of knowledge and experience to most effectively address the issue of feral Burmese pythons in the Everglades National Park and South Florida."

Beyond the invasiveness of the Burmese python, USARK fears that the issue is becoming "overly politicized and media-driven, thus creating a situation where we've selectively interpreted the available science," Wyatt said.

The issue isn't especially wellknown, and thus it lends itself to misinformation and over-generalizations, he added.

Danger to humans 'grossly overstated'

"The physical danger posed by pythons toward humans has simply been grossly overstated. Even in their native range of Southeast Asia, where human population densities far exceed that of South Florida, deaths attributed to pythons are extremely rare.

"As a general matter, pythons have never posed a real threat to humans. That's not to say, however, they make the best family pet in every case, or that they cannot pose a threat when best handling practices are not followed or existing laws designed to ensure responsible ownership are ignored. Only that they are not the dangerous killers portrayed by activists in the media."

USARK estimates that today there are over four million boas and pythons in captivity in the United States, representing about $1.6 billion in asset value and $1.8 billion in annual revenues. Of these in captivity today, 100,000 are Burmese pythons or African pythons.

USARK will continue to work on shifting the ongoing debate over these species toward policy resolutions based upon complete and solid science, Wyatt said. "The utmost of care should be taken in any attempt to manage the captive and feral populations. If mistakes are made, problems will only be compounded.

"Simply legislating animals onto the Injurious Wildlife List of the Lacey Act will not accomplish HR 2811's stated intent. Rather, it will destroy the most valuable resource capable of effectively managing the millions of animals already here. If you reduce the value of these animals to zero and destroy the livelihoods of those most qualified to deal with the secure disposition of all of these animals, where will that leave us?

"Best management practices and professional standards specific to certain reptiles is what is needed, not draconian measures that will only succeed in destroying a viable industry."

"USARK has been developing and employing best handling practices and accreditation for many years and welcomes a more in-depth discussion in this regard with Congressional and administration officials. It is our belief that best management practices and professional standards specific to certain reptiles is what is needed, not draconian measures that will only succeed in destroying a viable industry.

Captivity as conservation

"Not only is the reptile industry a viable component of the American economy, but we have made an unparalleled contribution to conservation: captive breeding as a conservation safety net. Captivity is now considered an important tool of vertebrate conservation.

"What is today being attempted around the world for amphibians through the International Amphibian Ark, and as
proposed by the Great Cats and Rare Canids Act, and many captivity programs for other rare vertebrates ranging from Sumatran rhinos to Guam kingfishers, has already been accomplished for reptiles. Today the vast majority of boas and pythons held in captivity are captive-bred animals. These are animals that have not been removed from the wild.

"Reptiles are today more securely established in captivity than any other vertebrate group. This is truly one of the greatest conservation accomplishments of the past 20 years.

"Almost all species and subspecies of boas and pythons have been bred in the United States. There are now viable self-sustaining captive populations of several hundred species of reptiles being maintained in the United States. Most pythons and many boa species now exist in captivity as viable ancillary populations.

This has been accomplished through a decentralized, nongovernmental, economically driven model of conservation. It is American private enterprise that has achieved this very impressive modern goal, not a penny of American taxpayer dollars has been spent in this endeavor."

State legislation as model

State-level legislation in place in all but eight U.S. States should be considered by the U.S. Congress, Wyatt said.

"For example, last year legislation was passed in North Carolina with the support of the North Carolina Partners in Amphibian & Reptile Conservation to regulate the ownership and use of large constricting snakes. Similar legislation exists in the states of Texas and Florida.

"These measures ensure that safe, secure, professional best management practices are observed to legally work with these animals. USARK is also currently working in Virginia and South Carolina to introduce similar legislation in 2010.

"These best management practices embodied in existing state legislation could easily be adapted to a national USARK accreditation process insuring uniformity and professionalism across the country."

Prompt action is needed at the federal level to limit the number of invasive pythons released into the wild, South Florida Water Management District (SFWMD) Deputy Executive Director George Horne said in written testimony to the U.S. Congress today.

The House of Representatives Subcommittee on Crime, Terrorism and Homeland Security is considering a Bill that would classify nonnative pythons, such as the Burmese python, as "injurious animals" and ban their importation into the United States.

Hypothetical diet necessary for a hatchling Burmese python to reach 13 feet in the Florida Everglades (approximately 5 to 7 years)

1 raccoon
1 oppossum
4 five-foot alligators
5 American coots
6 little blue herons
8 ibises
10 squirrels
15 rabbits
15 wrens
30 cotton rats
72 mice

This illustration and the photos on this page were appended to the SFWMD written testimony handed to Congress today.

(Source: Skip Snow, Everglades National Park & Dr. Stephen Secor, University of Alabama)

"As a top predator and prolific breeder, these exotic snakes threaten state and federal efforts to restore America's Everglades, and they prey on the natural wildlife that call the Everglades home, including species already threatened or endangered," SFWMD's Horne said in the agency's testimony to Congress.

"We have a long history of successful invasive plant management and experience, but only recently have we had to commit more and more resources to the emerging populations of the Burmese python and other nonnative constrictors appearing across our landscape.

"If effective preventative programs were in place to limit introductions of nonnative constrictors, such as the legislation now under consideration, these much-needed taxpayerfunded resources could be redirected to other important resource management efforts.

"Today, however, the negative impacts from the unlimited importation of new pest animals require active responses on our part. Effective prevention of additional introductions of potentially invasive constrictor snakes, as proposed in this Bill, is the only path to prevent these costs from continually increasing."

While Florida, California and Hawaii are among the states most impacted by introduced invasive species, every state is affected, Horne added.

Photo of Burmese python killed in Florida courtesy of SFWMD

"Globally, exotic invasive species, including pest animals, weeds and pathogenic diseases, are a major cause of global biodiversity decline. In particular, nonnative animals compete for food and habitat, upset existing predator/prey relationships, degrade environmental quality, spread diseases and, in our case, may threaten the integrity of flood protection levees and canal banks, and electrical power delivery.

"Nationally, more than 50,000 species of introduced plants, animals and microbes cause more than $120 billion in damages and control costs each year. Already, 192 nonnative animal species are established in Florida, calling for the development of methods to forecast and respond to the potential economic loss, environmental damage and social stress caused by both new nonnative animal introductions and long-established invasive organisms," Horne said.

The Bill before Congress makes an important contribution towards prevention by limiting the importation of two snake species (the Burmese and African pythons) with high invasion potentials in the U.S., Horne said.

"The amendment could also be expanded to include all giant constrictor species determined by the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) to have medium or high invasion risk potential. The recently published USGS risk assessment for giant constrictors ranked nine species as having either a medium or high overall risk potential for invasion in the United States.

"These species include the Beni Anaconda, boa constrictor, Burmese python, DeSchauensee's anaconda, green anaconda, northern African python, southern African python, reticulated python, and yellow anaconda."

Photo of Burmese python killed in Florida courtesy of SFWMD

"We strongly support inclusion of these species in [the Bill] in order to immediately limit importation of species that our best science predicts will be invasive," Horne added.

"Rather than wait for the next Burmese python to become established in the United States, a proactive approach such as the proposed legislation being discussed today is urgently needed to protect our environment, economy and quality of life--not just in Florida but throughout the nation."

The South Florida Water Management District is deeply committed to preserving and restoring South Florida's environmental health and, unfortunately, the Everglades ecosystem is now home to the invasive Burmese python, Horne said.

Fifty-two eggs were inside a 16-foot Burmese python found in May, 2009 by South Florida Water Management District officials south of the Tamiami Trail in Miami-Dade County, Florida.

Photo courtesy of SFWMD

The snake is a top predator that is known to prey upon more than 20 native Florida species. Notable among these are the federally listed Key Largo wood rat, white-tailed deer, American alligator, bobcat and numerous wading birds common to the Everglades, including the wood stork.

"Attempts to manage Burmese pythons divert taxpayers' funds from these other urgent primary restoration and protection tasks. Yet, failure to do so will leave this aggressive animal as a serious impediment to our Everglades restoration progress," Horne said.

Small livestock likely prey

The Burmese python also threatens agricultural interests as small livestock are also likely prey, Horne added.

Since 2000, the South Florida Water Management District and Everglades National Park have removed 1,248 Burmese pythons from the Everglades.

"Experience already gained in Florida strongly indicates the need to regulate the importation and sale of this snake. Without stronger regulation and control resources, adverse impacts of Burmese pythons will continue to get worse, and the python's population will continue to expand north of the Everglades and likely into South
Florida's urban areas."

Burmese python nest eggs found in Miami-Dade County in Florida

Photo courtesy of SFWMD

Florida's other nonnative giant constrictors

Given South Florida's abrupt boundaries between dense human population centers and vast subtropical wilderness areas, it comes as no surprise that numerous giant constrictor species have been observed in Florida, Horne said.

"While most observed animals are presumed to be released pets, three additional constrictor species are now considered established or potentially established in Florida--the common boa, northern African python and yellow anaconda.

"All three species are identified in the USGS risk assessment as having a high overall risk of establishment in the
United States. The common boa has been repeatedly observed in South Florida, primarily on the Deering Estate in eastern Miami-Dade County, but also near Everglades National Park.

"Between 1989 and 2005, 96 common boas were captured in South Florida.

"Recent confirmed sightings of northern African pythons near the eastern boundary of the Everglades and yellow anacondas near Big Cypress National Preserve and Myakka State Park in southwest Florida are also cause for alarm."

"Recent confirmed sightings of northern African pythons near the eastern boundary of the Everglades and yellow anacondas near Big Cypress National Preserve and Myakka State Park in southwest Florida are also cause for alarm. All three of these species share traits with the Burmese python that are considered important factors for invasive potential, and like the Burmese python all three species will be very costly to control should they become widely established."

Burmese python photo courtesy of South Florida Water Management District

As the South Florida Water Management District and other agencies try to contain the documented damage and growing threat of the Burmese python and other invasive animals in Florida, the flow of potentially harmful exotic animals across U.S. borders continues, Horne said.

"To use just one example, roughly 144,000 boa constrictors were imported into the United States between
2000 and 2007. Federal action is needed now to address the immediate threat posed by giant constrictors which have or are likely to establish in our nation's wilderness areas."

This map from the recently published USGS risk assessment for giant constrictors suggests how much of the United States has a climate suitable (green area) for the establishment of the Burmese python.

Map courtesy of USGS

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100-pound albino python seized from Florida Panhandle home

In the latest crackdown on nonnative giant pet snakes in Florida, Fish and Wildlife Conservation Commission (FWC) investigators have confiscated an 11-foot, albino Burmese python living uncaged in a private residence.

Nine giant invasive snake species threaten U.S. ecosystems, study finds

Giant nonnative snake species would pose high risks to the health of ecosystems in the United States should they become established in the country, the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) says in a report.

Pythons in Florida: Who are you Going to Call?
Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation Commission appeals to residents of the state to report wildlife law violations. FWC also hosts amnesty days for people to turn over for placement giant snakes they can no longer keep as pets.

Pythons in Florida Everglades: Is the Snake Invasion Only Beginning?

The giant snakes were imported to North America as pets, but released or escaped into Florida's wetlands they are proliferating, challenging alligators for the top of the food chain, and potentially positioning themselves to invade much more of the United States. Conservation biologist Stuart Pimm discusses the problem.

Five giant non-native snake species would pose high risks to the health of ecosystems in the United States should they become established in the country, the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) said today.

A 300-page report prepared by the agency details the risks of nine non-native boa, anaconda and python species that are invasive or potentially invasive in the U.S.

Burmese python (Python molurus), a Giant Constrictor Snake

Photo courtesy of Roy Wood, National Park Service

"Because all nine species share characteristics associated with greater risks, none was found to be a low ecological risk," USGS said in a statement released with the report.

Two of the giant snake species are documented as reproducing in the wild in South Florida, with population estimates for Burmese pythons in the tens of thousands, the agency noted.

A Burmese python peeks over the head of an alligator that holds the python's body in its mouth in Everglades National Park.

Photo courtesy of Lori Oberhofer, National Park Service

Small risk to people

Based on the biology and known natural history of the giant constrictors, individuals of some species may also pose a small risk to people, although most snakes would not be large enough to consider a person as suitable prey, USGS added.

"Mature individuals of the largest species---Burmese, reticulated, and northern and southern African pythons---have been documented as attacking and killing people in the wild in their native range, though such unprovoked attacks appear to be quite rare," the report authors wrote. The snake most associated with unprovoked human fatalities in the wild is the reticulated python.

"The situation with human risk is similar to that experienced with alligators: attacks in the wild are improbable but possible."

"The situation with human risk is similar to that experienced with alligators: attacks in the wild are improbable but possible."

"This report clearly reveals that these giant snakes threaten to destabilize some of our most precious ecosystems and parks, primarily through predation on vulnerable native species," said Robert Reed, a coauthor of the report and a USGS invasive species scientist and herpetologist.

Boa Constrictor (Boa constrictor) at a county park in southeastern Miami.

Photo courtesy of Mike Rochford, University of Florida.

USGS sorted the giant snakes into high-risk and medium-risk categories.

"High-risk species are Burmese pythons, northern and southern African pythons, boa constrictors, and yellow anacondas. High-risk species, if established in this country, put larger portions of the U.S. mainland at risk, constitute a greater ecological threat, or are more common in trade and commerce.

"Medium-risk species were reticulated python, DeSchauensee's anaconda, green anaconda, and Beni anaconda. These species constitute lesser threats in these areas, but still are potentially serious threats.

"Because all nine species share characteristics associated with greater risks, none was found to be low-risk."

A female Burmese python on her nest with eggs. Photo by Jemeema Carrigan, University of Florida. Courtesy of Skip Snow, National Park Service

The USGS scientists who authored the report emphasized that native U.S. birds, mammals, and reptiles in areas of potential invasion have never had to deal with huge predatory snakes before, the agency said in its statement.

"Individuals of the largest three species reach lengths of more than 20 feet and upwards of 200 pounds. The reticulated python is the world's longest snake, and the green anaconda is the heaviest snake. Both species have been found in the wild in South Florida, although breeding populations are not yet confirmed for either.

"Breeding populations have been confirmed in South Florida for Burmese pythons and the boa constrictor, and there is strong evidence that the northern African python may have a breeding population in the wild as well."

Skip Snow (National Park Service) measures the length of a captured Burmese python at the South Florida Research Center, Everglades National Park.

Photo courtesy of Lori Oberhofer, NPS

"Compounding their risk to native species and ecosystems is that these snakes mature early, produce large numbers of offspring, travel long distances, and have broad diets that allow them to eat most native birds and mammals," said Gordon Rodda, a USGS scientist at the Fort Collins Science Center and the other coauthor of the report.

"Boa constrictors and northern African pythons...already live wild in the Miami metropolitan area."

In addition, he said, most of these snakes can inhabit a variety of habitats and are quite tolerant of urban or suburban areas. Boa constrictors and northern African pythons, for example, already live wild in the Miami metropolitan area.

This map from the USGS report suggests how much of the United States has a climate suitable (green area) for the establishment of the Burmese python. 

Eradication is difficult

The report notes that there are no control tools yet that seem adequate for eradicating an established population of giant snakes once they have spread over a large area. "Making the task of eradication more difficult is that in the wild these snakes are extremely difficult to find since their camouflaged coloration enables them to blend in well with their surroundings," USGS added.

Yellow anaconda (Eunectes notaeus) specimen captured at Big Cypress National Preserve. Photo courtesy of Skip Snow, National Park Service.

The lesson of Guam

"We have a cautionary tale with the American island of Guam and the brown treesnake," said Reed. "Within 40 years of its arrival, this invasive snake has decimated the island's native wildlife--10 of Guam's 12 native forest birds, one of its two bat species, and about half of its native lizards are gone. The python introduction to Florida is so recent that the tally of ecological damage cannot yet be made."

The researchers used the best available science to forecast areas of the country most at risk of invasion by these giant snakes, USGS said.

The USGS map shows where in the U.S. the climate is suitable for establishment of the southern African python.

"Based on climate alone, many of the species would be limited to the warmest areas of the United States, including parts of Florida, extreme south Texas, Hawaii, and America's tropical islands, such as Puerto Rico, Guam, and other Pacific islands," the agency said.

"For a few species, however, larger areas of the continental United States appear to exhibit suitable climatic conditions. For example, much of the southern U.S. climatic conditions are similar to those experienced by the Burmese python in its native range.

However, many factors other than climate alone can influence whether a species can establish a population in a particular location," the report notes.

The Fish and Wildlife Service and the National Park Service will use the report to assist in further development of management actions concerning the snakes when and where these species appear in the wild.

In addition, the risk assessment will provide current, science-based information for management authorities to evaluate prospective regulations that might prevent further colonization of the U.S. by these snakes, USGS said.

Scientific names of the invasive giant snakes

Indian or Burmese python (Python molurus)
Northern African python (Python sebae)
Southern African python (Python natalensis)
Reticulated python (Python [or Broghammerus] reticulatus)
Boa constrictor (Boa constrictor)
Green anaconda (Eunectes murinus)
Yellow anaconda (Eunectes notaeus)
Beni or Bolivian anaconda (Eunectes beniensis)
De Schauensee's anaconda (Eunectes deschauenseei)

Giant Constrictor Risk Assessment:
Frequently Asked Questions (USGS)

A second species of python--the African rock python--has been found to be breeding in the Florida wild, National Geographic News reports today.

"Already squeezed by the invasion of the giant Burmese python, Florida now faces what one scientist calls one of the U.S. state's "worst nightmares," writes NG News editor Chrstine Dell'Amore. "Africa's largest snake--the ill-tempered, 20-foot-long (6.1-meter-long) African rock python--is colonizing the U.S. state, new discoveries suggest." (Read the full story: Python "Nightmare": New Giant Species Invading Florida.)

Burmese python picture courtesy Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation Commission

The news follows a spate of recent reports of giant pythons being seized in Florida by the Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation Commission (FWC), the agency responsible for regulating exotic species in the Sunshine State.

Four-hundred-pound python

A few days ago the FWC seized a pet Burmese python weighing 400 pounds (180 kilograms) and stretching 18 feet long, according to news reports. The snake was taken away from a backyard by authorities after being deemed unsafe.

"Concerns about the size of the snake and whether the chain-link cage she was in was secure enough to contain her, prompted the visit from the Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation Commission on Friday," the Telegraph reported.

And only a week or so before that, an anonymous tip to the Wildlife Alert Hotline sent FWC investigators to a Florida residence in search of two illegally kept Burmese pythons.

"What was hidden from the world shocked even investigator Daryl Amerson, a 24-year FWC veteran who thought he had seen it all." 

"What was hidden from the world shocked even investigator Daryl Amerson, a 24-year FWC veteran who thought he had seen it all," the FWC said afterward in a statement accompanying the picture below.

"Amerson discovered an 11-foot-long male Burmese python, dwarfed by its female companion, a 17-foot behemoth of the same species that weighed more than 150 pounds."

Burmese python picture courtesy Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation Commission

The owner did not have the permits required by state law to keep them, FWC added.

The FWC lists Burmese pythons as reptiles of concern. Burmese pythons have escaped or been released into the Everglades National Park where they are breeding and munching a range of indigenous species that have not evolved protection from such predators. They have even been challenging the alligator to be top of the park's food chain.

Owners of pythons in Florida are required to have the pets microchipped and must follow specific caging requirements based on the size of the reptile, according to the FWC. They also must keep a written and approved contingency plan in case of escape or natural disaster.

The recently confiscated snakes were taken to a licensed facility.

New rules for captive wildlife went into effect in January 2008. People who owned reptiles of concern prior to the effective date are still required to purchase a permit.

Pet Amnesty Day

The FWC hosts pet amnesty days several times a year. At these events, people who can no longer keep nonnatives as pets can turn them over to the FWC for placement. The next pet amnesty day will be for reptiles of concern only, at Gatorland in Orlando on October 3.

Florida Wildlife Alert Hotline:

888-404-3922 

The FWC has appealed to residents of the state to report wildlife law violations, by calling the toll-free Wildlife Alert Hotline at 888-404-3922.

Pythons first appeared in South Florida nearly two decades ago, and they now take center stage as efforts to control their proliferation in the Everglades continue by wildlife managers at both the federal and state levels, according to the FWC.

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Pythons in Florida Everglades: Is the Snake Invasion Only Beginning?
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In the world of round goby fish there are females and males ... and males.

Scientists have found the existence of two types of males of the fiercely invasive fish spreading through the Great Lakes, which may provide answers as to how they rapidly reproduce, McMaster University announced.

"Researchers ... discovered evidence that in addition to round goby males which guard the nest from predators and look after their offspring, there exists what scientists call 'sneaker' males--little males that look like females and sneak into the nests of the larger males," the Canadian university said in a statement.

The parental male is the big fish in this picture and the sneaker male is the small fish.
Photo courtesy McMaster University

The study, published in the Journal of Great Lakes Research, looks at the aggressive round goby, a bottom-dwelling fish which infested the Great Lakes watersheds around 1990."Presently, they are working their way inland through rivers and canal systems and can lead to the decline of native species through competition and predation," McMaster said.

"The existence of these two kinds of males will help scientists understand how round gobies reproduce, how quickly their populations grow, and track how these populations change over the course of invasion," said Julie Marentette, lead author and a Ph.D. student in the department of Psychology, Neuroscience & Behaviour at McMaster University. "This has the potential to have a significant impact on how researchers tackle what has become a very difficult problem in the Great Lakes."

Sneakier Way to Mate

Because males expend lots of energy or eat less while guarding their nests, and attracting females while providing care can be difficult, males in some species have found a sneakier way to mate, Marentette explained. "Instead of courting females and protecting the young, some males will parasitize the courtship--and sometimes the parenting duties--of conventional males. They do this by sneaking into the nests of big males or pretending to be females."

"Prior to our findings, only one type of male reproductive behaviour would have been incorporated into projections and modeling analyses of the population dynamics of round goby invasive capacities", said Sigal Balshine, associate professor in the department of Psychology, Neuroscience & Behaviour and academic advisor on the study. "Our results will shed light on how populations of this invasive species are likely to grow and spread through time and space."

Sneakers produced more sperm ... and had bigger testes

The McMaster scientists compared the physical, hormonal and sperm traits of hundreds of males, and found that the nest-guarding, parental males were big, black and had wide heads. The small female-like sneaker males were tiny, mottled brown and had narrow heads.

Both types of males produced sperm, but sneakers produced more sperm than the parental males, and had bigger testes.

By contrast, parental males have bigger glands used to produce pheromones that attract females.

Funding for the research was provided by the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada, Canada Fund for Innovation, the Ministry of Research and Innovation and the Department of Fisheries and Oceans.

Wildlife trade is so poorly regulated in the United States that it threatens ecosystems, native species, food supply chains and human health, several agencies and institutions have warned.

Imports of wildlife are fragmented and insufficiently coordinated, failing to accurately list more than four in five species entering the country, said a team of scientists from the Wildlife Trust, Brown University, Pacific Lutheran University, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, and the Global Invasive Species Programme.

Their findings are published in the current issue of the journal Science.

The pet trade includes sales of tokay geckos, pictured here.

Photo by Michael Yabsley, University of Georgia/Courtesy NSF

"As our world, in many senses, grows smaller and smaller with the ease of international travel, the network of connections has increased, facilitating the spread of diseases," said Rita Teutonico, senior advisor for integrative activities in the National Science Foundation's (NSF) Directorate for Social, Behavioral & Economic Sciences (SBE).

SBE co-funded the research.

"These scientists report a pattern of trade in wildlife that includes a very large number of animals, coupled with a poor understanding of what species are traded," said James Collins, NSF assistant director for Biological Sciences, in a news statement issued by the NSF. "The findings highlight the need for further research because of the unknown effects these animals and their pathogens can have on native organisms."

More than 1.5 Billion Animals Imported

A global trade in wildlife generates hundreds of billions of dollars each year, the news release added. The researchers report that during a six-year period from 2000 through 2006, the U.S. imported more than 1.5 billion live animals.

"That's more than 200 million animals a year--unexpectedly high," said scientist Peter Daszak, president of the Wildlife Trust, who co-led the research.

The animals collected were from wild populations in more than 190 countries around the world, and were intended for commercial sale in the U.S.--primarily in the pet trade, according to the news statement.

"This incredible number of imports is equivalent to every single person in the U.S. owning at least five pets," said biologist Katherine Smith of Brown University, co-leader of the study.

More than 86 percent of shipments contained animals that were not classified to the level of species, making it impossible to assess the full diversity of animals imported, or calculate the risk of non-native species introductions or disease transmission, the NSF said.

"Shipments are coming in labeled 'live vertebrate' or 'fish,'" Daszak said. "If we don't know what animals are in there, how do we know which are going to become invasive species or carry diseases that could affect livestock, wildlife--or ourselves?"

Monkeypox and Other Diseases Imported With Wildlife

The wildlife trade has previously led to disease introductions such as the 2003 monkeypox outbreak following the import of infected African rodents for the pet trade, NSF added.

"The threat to public health is real, as the majority of emerging diseases come from wildlife," said Smith. "Most of these imported animals originate in Southeast Asia--a hotspot for emerging diseases."

The research team calls for direct measures to decrease the risk of such "pathogen pollution" and proposes guidelines to protect human, animal, and ecosystem health:

• Stricter record keeping should be required to inform risk analysis on animal imports.
• Third-party surveillance and testing should be established for both known and unknown pathogens at the exportation points in foreign countries.
• Greater public education is needed to educate individuals, importers, veterinarians and pet industry advocates about the dangers of diseases that emerge from wildlife and that can make their way to domesticated animals and humans.

"We need to look at all the factors that impact ecosystems--the whole picture," Daszak said. "The global wildlife trade is promoting a process that will impact our health and the health of the planet."

National Geographic News related news stories:

Invasive Species in the United States (photos)

Huge, Freed Pet Pythons Invade Florida Everglades

 

Spring is in the air -- it's the vernal equinox today. That means it's also time to start considering the gardening season.

If you've never contemplated gardening, now is the time to try it. Do your bit for the planet by greening your patch.

It's a great way to grow local food (following the example of First Lady Michelle Obama, who is starting an organic vegetable garden on the grounds of the White House), landscape your surroundings for aesthetic appeal and tranquility, and provide refuge for many small animals, from earthworms and friendly bugs to birds and toads.

Gardening is also therapeutic: Researchers at Kansas State University determined that gardening could offer enough moderate physical activity to keep older adults in shape.

I have written previously about the rewards of attracting butterflies, bees, birds and other animals to our backyard.

So it was with appreciation that I received from FSB Associates for review "The All-New Illustrated Guide to Gardening," a bible for gardeners crammed with 2,500 photos and illustrations of over 700 plants.

This classic Reader's Digest book has been a best-seller for decades -- but now it is 100 percent organic and in full color, the cover informs us. (See side bar below for examples and benefits of organic gardening.)

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The critically endangered Roussea flower has been vanishing from Mauritius, an island in the Indian Ocean.

Now scientists have figured out why.

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Photo courtesy Isaac Chellman/University of Washington

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