Even in his wildest dreams, China's first emperor, Qin Shihuangdi (Chin She-hwong-dee), could never have imagined that terra cotta warriors made to guard his tomb in the afterlife would travel the world as ambassadors of friendship between nations.

Those were the thoughts today of Xie Feng, minister and deputy chief of mission of the Chinese Embassy in the U.S. He made the observation at the official opening at the National Geographic Museum of the exhibition "Terra Cotta Warriors: Guardians of China's First Emperor."

Caption: Terra cotta figures on exhibition at the National Geographic Museum, Washington, D.C. The average terra cotta warrior is 6 feet tall and weighs 300-400 lbs. Craftsmen sculpted individual facial features for each figure by hand. Many of the faces are thought to resemble the artists themselves or some real person or military figure. It is believed that no two faces are identical.

Photo by David Braun

Auspicious sign

Minister Xie also observed that while President Obama was in Beijing today, visiting the Forbidden City and holding talks with China's President Hu Jintao, the terra cotta warriors were in Washington--a coincidence that was "an auspicious sign" of the improving relationship between the two countries.

White House photo by Pete Souza. 

The National Geographic Museum is the final venue of the terra cotta warriors' four-city U.S. tour. The largest number of terra cotta figures ever to travel to the United States for a single exhibition includes more than 100 artifacts from the tomb of Qin Shihuangdi, who ruled from 221 B.C. to 210 B.C.

Caption: A view of reconstructed warriors, on exhibition in China. Originally, the soldiers were painted with pigments made from minerals mixed with either egg white or animal blood.

Photo by Wang Da Gang

"The First Emperor's magnificent terra cotta army is one of the great wonders of the ancient world," said Terry Garcia, National Geographic's executive vice president for Mission Programs. "Visitors to the National Geographic Museum will have the rare opportunity to experience one of the greatest archaeological discoveries of the 20th century as they stand face-to-face with the terra cotta warriors," he added.

Level 1 artifacts

More than 96,000 tickets have been purchased in advance for the Washington venue of the exhibition, which offers an in-depth look at the First Emperor's enormous tomb complex that contained thousands of terra cotta warriors intended to protect him in the afterlife. The exhibition showcases the life-size terra cotta figures and other objects, including 20 "Level 1" artifacts--China's highest possible ranking in terms of rarity and importance.

Caption: Albert E. Dien, Ph.D., professor emeritus, Stanford University, is guest curator for the "Terra Cotta Warriors: Guardians of China's First Emperor" exhibition. In this video he explains why the terra cotta warriors are the "Eighth Wonder of the World."

Video by David Braun

Secrets of the Qin

Discovered after being buried for more than 2,000 years, the terra cotta warriors reveal secrets of the Qin dynasty, a National Geographic statement about the exhibition explains.

"The warriors were found in 1974 by a group of farmers digging a well near Xi'an in China's Shaanxi province. When archaeologists began excavating the area, they uncovered a subterranean vault containing fragments of thousands of terra cotta figures in four pits."

Caption: Terra cotta warriors and horses found in the tomb of China's first emperor Qin Shihuang, located north of Xi'an in China.

Photo by Wang Da Gang

Caption: There are four pits of varying sizes, three of which contain warriors, filled with an estimated 7,000 figures along with hundreds of horses, chariots and weapons. Pit 1 (in the illustration above) is the largest at 203 feet x 755 feet, roughly the size of two and two-thirds football fields, and was the first to be discovered. Ranks of terra cotta warriors, horses and chariots were placed in formation throughout this space.

"More than 1,000 life-size figures have been unearthed as part of the site's ongoing excavation, with estimates of 6,000 more remaining in the known underground pits," National Geographic's statement says.

"Construction of Qin Shihuangdi's tomb took 36 years to complete, and the tomb complex is estimated to extend more than 19 square miles."

Warrior assembly line

"The terra cotta figures were created in assembly-line fashion, and molds were used to mass-produce hands, heads and ears. Craftsmen sculpted individual armor details and facial features by hand. It is believed that no two faces are alike," National Geographic said.

The 15 terra cotta figures in "Terra Cotta Warriors: Guardians of China's First Emperor" consist of nine warriors--two infantrymen, a chariot driver, two officers, an armored warrior, two archers and a cavalryman--as well as two musicians, a strongman, a court official, a stable attendant and a horse. The exhibition showcases 100 sets of artifacts, including weapons, stone armor, coins, jade ornaments, roof tiles and decorative bricks, and a bronze crane and swan.

Two replica bronze chariots are also on display.

Caption: One of the replica bronze chariots on exhibition at the National Geographic Museum. All figures are life-size.

Photo by David Braun 

Caption: National Geographic Museum Director Susan Norton and her staff worked for more than two years to bring "Terra Cotta Warriors: Guardians of China's First Emperor" to Washington, D.C. In this video she talks about the planning and challenges of moving and exhibiting 2,200-year-old artifacts.

Video by David Braun

The objects in the exhibition are drawn from 11 different collections in and near Xi'an, including the Museum of the First Emperor's Terra Cotta Army and Horses, Shaanxi Provincial Institute for Archaeological Research, the Zhouzhi Museum, Baoji Museum, Xianyang Museum, Lintong Museum, Fengxiang Museum, Chencang Museum, Xi'an Institute for Archaeological Research and Protection, Baoji Archaeological Excavation Team and Xianyang Institute for Archaeological Research.

Photo by David Braun

The Washington exhibition is open daily from 10 a.m. to 6 p.m., with extended hours on Wednesdays until 9 p.m. The National Geographic Museum is closed on December 25. The exhibition will be open to the public from November 19, 2009 until March 31, 2010.

Tickets are timed and dated and can be purchased online at the Buy Tickets page of the exhibition Web site www.warriorsdc.org, by phone at (202) 857-7700 and at the National Geographic Museum ticket booth located at the exhibition's entrance or at the National Geographic ticket office, 1600 M Street, N.W., Washington, D.C.

Caption: A standing archer. The warriors' hands are positioned to hold weapons, many of which were stolen during the rebellions that followed the emperor's death.

Photo by Wang Da Gang 

Caption: A detailed look at one of the terra cotta warriors found in the tomb of China's first emperor Qin Shihuang, located north of Xi'an in China.

Photo by Wang Da Gang

Photo by David Braun

The exhibition is co-organized by the Bowers Museum, Houston Museum of Natural Science and the National Geographic Museum, and is guest curated by Dr. Albert E. Dien, professor emeritus, Stanford University.Support for the exhibition was given by American Airlines; Amtrak; Washington, D.C.'s Loews Madison Hotel; P.F. Chang's China Bistro; The PIMCO Foundation; UPS; Viking River Cruises; and WTOP.

Terra Cotta Warriors Exhibition Fact Sheet

Emperor Qin Shihuangdi

In the long history of China, the First Emperor of the Qin dynasty stands out for his accomplishments and the controversy that surrounds his rule. He ruled a unified China for only 11 years, but many of his reforms have lasted as long as his warriors have stood guard -- more than 2,200 years.

Born in 259 B.C., Ying Zheng became king of the state of Qin at age 13. In 239 B.C. the king began to rule in his own name and shortly thereafter he sent his armies to conquer the surrounding states. By 221 B.C. a vast empire was under his control. He renamed himself Qin Shihuangdi (Chin She-hwong-dee), First Emperor of the Qin.

The emperor instituted a series of ambitious reforms, creating a centralized administration to consolidate his power. He is credited with unifying seven warring states; building an extensive network of roads; standardizing weights, currency and measures; establishing Qin writing as the official language, which became the basis of the written script now known as Simplified Chinese; beginning construction on the Great Wall of China; and pioneering the use of mass production.

In 210 B.C. Emperor Qin fell ill and died unexpectedly. He is believed to have been interred beneath a large man-made hill in an elaborate chamber that has not yet been excavated.

Records written nearly 100 years after Emperor Qin's death show that succeeding dynasties defined the Qin period as a time of draconian enforcement of harsh laws. However, recent discoveries of Qin laws indicate a less severe administration than previously imagined, and the emperor's reputation is being reevaluated. Regardless of how his legacy is ultimately judged, the impact of his rule and the grandeur of his tomb set a standard that has not been surpassed.

The tomb complex and pits

Photo by Wang Da Gang

As was customary, Emperor Qin began work on his tomb complex when he ascended the throne at age 13. After conquering the neighboring states, he expanded the plans in keeping with his new title of First Emperor. The tomb complex covers 19 square miles and includes a man-made earthen mound rising above his underground burial chamber.

Providing for the emperor in the afterlife meant filling his tomb complex with a wide range of items to serve his needs. The emperor's tomb mound sits at the center of what was once a walled area. Outside the walled tomb area in pits three-quarters of a mile to the east are the warriors, standing ready to defend the emperor.

Photo by Wang Da Gang

The army faced east, towards a pass in the mountains through which enemies might approach.

There are four pits of varying sizes, three of which contain warriors, filled with an estimated 7,000 figures along with hundreds of horses, chariots and weapons.

Photo by Wang Da Gang

Pit 1 is the largest at 203 feet x 755 feet, roughly the size of two and two-thirds football fields, and was the first to be discovered. Ranks of terra cotta warriors, horses and chariots were placed in formation throughout this space.

Pit 1 was dug to a depth of about 15 feet, with walls of pounded earth dividing the interior into 11 corridors. The floors were paved with bricks. A framework of wooden pillars and beams covered with planks, matting and a plaster shell formed the roof. The whole area was covered with earth mounded about 6 feet above the original ground surface. Pits 2 and 3 were constructed in similar fashion.

Photo by Wang Da Gang

Photo by Wang Da Gang

The figures contained in the smaller Pit 2 are more varied. The ranks include cavalrymen, chariots and 160 standing and kneeling archers.

Pit 3 is even smaller and is the only one to be completely excavated. This pit was meant to serve as a command center for the underground army. It contains just 68 soldiers, most of them guards with a few officers stationed behind a single chariot, perhaps meant for the supreme commander.

Pit 4 is incomplete and contains no figures, suggesting that work ceased in the rebellions following the death of Qin Shihuangdi.

The warriors

Photo by Wang Da Gang

The average warrior is 6 feet tall and weighs 300-400 lbs.

Craftsmen sculpted individual facial features for each figure by hand. Many of the faces are thought to resemble the artists themselves or some real person or military figure. It is believed that no two faces are identical.

Originally, the soldiers were painted with pigments made from minerals mixed with either egg white or animal blood.

The legs and feet of each warrior are solid clay to support the weight of the figure. To create the torso, artisans built up coils of clay; the hands, arms and head were molded separately and then attached.

Photo by Wang Da Gang

When a figure was complete, a layer of fine clay was applied to the entire sculpture so individual details could be incised by hand. After this was completed, the statues were fired at high temperatures.

The warriors' hands are positioned to hold weapons, many of which were stolen during the rebellions that followed the emperor's death.

The warriors were discovered in March 1974 by a group of men digging a well along the Wei River near the city of Xi'an. The tomb complex of the First Emperor has since been dubbed the Eighth Wonder of the World.

To date, only 1,000 figures have been excavated and restored.

All information is drawn from exhibition text and the "Terra Cotta Warriors: Guardians of China's First Emperor" exhibition e-Guide, available for download at www.warriorsdc.org

More photos from the the Terra Cotta Warriors exhibition at the National Geographic Museum:

Photos by David Braun

 

Intelligent Travel: Sneak Peek--Terra Cotta Warriors at NG

BlogWild: Terra Cotta Countdown

National Geographic Magazine: Treasures from Ancient China

"There can be no food security without climate security," United Nations Secretary-General Ban Ki-Moon said today at the start of the World Summit on Food Security in Rome.

"If the glaciers of the Himalaya melt, it will affect the livelihoods and survival of three hundred million people in China and up to a billion people throughout Asia," he said at the event convened by the UN Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO.

Photo © FAO/Giulio Napolitano

World leaders meeting at FAO headquarters for the summit "unanimously adopted a declaration pledging renewed commitment to eradicate hunger from the face of the earth sustainably and at the earliest date," according to an FAO news release.

"Countries also agreed to work to reverse the decline in domestic and international funding for agriculture and promote new investment in the sector, to improve governance of global food issues in partnership with relevant stakeholders from the public and private sector, and to proactively face the challenges of climate change to food security."

Photo © FAO/Alessandra Benedetti

"Africa's small farmers, who produce most of the continent's food and depend mostly on rain, could see harvests drop by 50 per cent by 2020. We must make significant changes to feed ourselves and, most especially, to safeguard the poorest and most vulnerable," Ban Ki-Moon said.

FAO Director-General Jacques Diouf stressed the need to produce food where the poor and hungry live and to boost agricultural investment in these regions, according to the FAO statement.

"In some developed countries, two to four percent of the population are able to produce enough food to feed the entire nation and even to export, while in the majority of developing countries, 60 to 80 percent of the population are not able to meet country food needs," Diouf said.

Photo © FAO/Giulio Napolitano

"The planet can feed itself, provided that the decisions made are honoured and the required resources are effectively mobilized," he said, calling for an increase in official development assistance to agriculture, a greater share of developing country budgets devoted to agriculture and incentives to encourage private investment.

"Eliminating hunger from the face of Earth requires US$44 billion of official development assistance per year to be invested in infrastructure, technology and modern inputs. It is a small amount if we consider the $365 billion of agriculture producer support in OECD countries in 2007, and if we consider the $1,340 billion of military expenditures by the world in the same year," Diouf said.

"Over the past five years, several countries in Africa, Latin America and Asia have succeeded to substantially reduce the number of hungry people in their territories," Diouf said. "This means that we know what should be done and how it can be done to defeat hunger."

"In low-income food-deficit countries, food security programmes and plans exist and are awaiting political will and financing to become operational," he noted.

Diouf also underlined the fact that food security goes beyond production, the statement added. "We need protection against pests and diseases of plants and animals which often directly affect human health. We have likewise to face emergency situations resulting from natural disasters and to conserve the national resource base of food production to ensure sustainability."

The pope called for greater understanding of the needs of the rural world. "At the same time," he said, "access to international markets must be favoured for those products coming from the poorest areas, which today are often relegated to the margins. In order to achieve these objectives, it is necessary to separate the rules of international trade from the logic of profit viewed as an end in itself."

Native American Heritage Month (November) is when we reflect on the heritage of the first people in the Americas and honor their traditions and ancestors.

North America before the time of contact with Europeans five hundred years ago was a mosaic of extraordinary human diversity. Hundreds of tribes had their own cultures, political systems, art forms, spiritual beliefs--and languages.

NGS stock photo by David Boyer

By the late 19th Century all that had changed. Most tribes had been restricted to reservations. Many of their children were taken to boarding schools where they were required to speak only in English as part of a program to assimilate Native Americans into the white culture. Native American languages were mainly dead or dying.

By the late 20th Century, more than half the Native Americans in the U.S. were living in urban areas, where English was their everyday and home language. The few remaining Native American languages still in use were increasingly spoken only by the elders.

But there has been a resilience among the first people of North America in the 21st Century, and many of them have been determined to hang on to their heritage. Others are looking for ways to revitalize traditional cultures, spiritual values--and languages.

NGS stock photo by Chris Johns

One organization that has been established to record the disappearing languages around the world, including those of North America--and perhaps to help revitalize those that are on the brink of extinction--is the Living Tongues Institute for Endangered Languages.

Under the Enduring Voices Project, linguists journey to meet with last speakers, listen to their stories, and document their languages with film, pictures, and audio to help communities preserve their knowledge of species, landscapes, and traditions before they vanish, according to the project's Web site.

I spoke to Dr. Greg Anderson, director of Living Tongues, about the disappearing languages of the U.S. and what's been done to document, if not save them.

Why should we care about preserving languages?

Whether for heritage or scientific reasons, languages need to be recorded.

Every language is useful as a means to identify a group. It codifies the history and world view of a people. It's clear that it's important to many people that they have their language that identifies them uniquely as a group.

Most native communities in the U.S. want to have as good and accurate record of their language as possible, in a format to be enjoyed by as many people as possible. There is great interest in documenting this heritage.

Documenting a disappearing language is so important, but it's possible only to really begin to appreciate all the subtleties and complexities of language if you have some speakers left to give you the dynamics and social context. If a language goes then it can't find new life without recorded materials.

"Every language furthers and refines our understanding of cognition, communications systems, the nature of the mind and the different ways people categorize our collective human experience."

From a scientific perspective it is also imperative to document languages while they are still alive. Languages are markers of identity and group cohesion. Linguists will tell you that every language furthers and refines our understanding of cognition, communications systems, the nature of the mind and the different ways people categorize our collective human experience.

For scientists, who knows what benefits there will be down the line that we don't even know about now yet. Certainly there will be uses for the data. But you can be sure it won't be used if it's not documented.

Tell us about the language hotspots in North America

In the Enduring Voices project, we focus on the situation of languages in hotspots. Several hotspots have been identified in North America, most notably in Oklahoma. It is where we find a concentration of unique languages that are vanishing. These are the priority areas for future work in language documentation.

The idea is to create areas where efforts need to be concentrated, where the number and different types of languages have consequences that are greater collectively for humanity.

Source for Language Hotspots map: Living Tongues Institute for Endangered Languages

Each language is of course equally valued, but we have a finite number of people, dollars, and time to do this work, so we need to maximize our efforts and resources.

In North America there are 150-170 languages that still have at least one speaker. Many of these languages have fewer than a hundred speakers. There are very few languages that have decent prospects of surviving without significant effort on the part of their communities to continue to find a use for them.

Oregon was probably the most diverse region of languages in the U.S. California might have the claim, but it is much larger, so the award for density of linguistic diversity goes to Oregon.

"At the time Lewis and Clark arrived in what's now Oregon 200 years ago there were 14 language families, more than in all of Europe combined."

At the time Lewis and Clark arrived in what's now Oregon 200 years ago there were 14 language families, more than in all of Europe combined. Today only five families of languages exist, and most of them have only a handful of speakers.

There is only one language family that has more than a hundred or two hundred speakers, and that's Northern Paiute, in southeastern Oregon, where the elders can still speak it when they get together. For most of the rest of the people there the everyday language is English.

The vast majority of the remaining languages in Oregon are known only by very few elders. The language diversity of that region has fallen off a cliff.

NGS stock photo by David McLain

There has been some documentation of these languages, but mostly just as text, and often a hundred years old. The complexity of the setting of these texts, and the sounds of the languages have often been lost.

With the loss of the languages, all kinds of wonderful things that the speakers did with their languages have also vanished, for example, some of the greatest works of oral literature ever produced--the multilingual performances with different characters speaking different languages that was found in the Pacific Northwest.

The highly elaborate dances that accompanied the oral tradition are frequently also gone.

Large amounts of local knowledge about fauna and flora, ecosystem management, local place names, spiritual values, and so on are all submerged, altered or gone because the original languages that expressed these concepts are gone or no longer well understood.

 How is this situation being addressed?
 
Two directions. We have tried to do a little through the Enduring Voices program, which has been quite effective at raising public awareness about the issue of language endangement. A longer-term arrangement is through Living Tongues, where we plan and execute larger scale projects. These are the main ways we engage the communities and help them to document and revitalize their languages.

Through Enduring Voices, we have been helping the Winnemem Wintu, one of the indigenous peoples of north central California. We have given them a technology kit and are providing training to help them compile video and audio recordings, with the purpose of producing language revitalization materials for their language.

Winnemem Wintu representatives are going to take part in an Enduring Voices workshop in Santa Fe next April. They will be joined by representatives of the Sac and Fox tribes, who are also interested in maintaining their Sauk language.

Our workshop takes people step by step through the raw data they collect and shows them how to produce a book or audio or some other product they can use to document their language and/or to teach others to speak it.

NGS stock photo by B. Anthony Stewart

There is a long process between raw data and usable material. But the communities themselves must want to collect the data and do something with it. This is really the only way that languages will survive into the future, if activists in the communities are interested in maintaining their language.

How communities use their language is up to them. It can be informal, such as by producing a reader, or formal, such as a course taught in schools. Languages can be revitalized by finding new users and creating new uses for them.

Some communities outsource this work to us. We have been working with the Confederated Tribes of Siletz Indians in Oregon and helping them build a talking dictionary. It now has many thousands of words. Only the tribe has access to it. It is knowledge they want to keep to themselves, which is their right.

NGS stock photo by Bates Littlehales

Once a language is dead it is pretty hard to imagine how it could be brought back. When you are down to only a few speakers you can find ways to build speaker communities, such as happened successfully in Hawaii, where they have created new speakers.

Language nests have been built in other native American communities with some success. The Cherokee in Oklahoma have shown great success in generating new speakers with their immersion school.

NGS stock photo by Maggie Steber

The Confederated Tribes of Grand Ronde, a casino-funded tribe, has resources and the will to support language regeneration programs, and have successfully generated new speakers of Chinuk Wawa, the lingua franca of many Oregon reservations of the late 19th and early 20th centuries. This shows that it is possible to reclaim languages.

If you have five speakers of a language and you start immersion schools you can produce 25 speakers. Then you can multiply those again. The Cherokee can be thinking of thousands and tens of thousands of speakers of their language on this basis ultimately. It is a model that has worked.

Children are sponges and absorb languages easily. If they are placed in a language immersion situation where everyone is speaking the language they will become fluent.

Preserving languages should be of interest to everyone, right?

Enduring Voices is promoting the key hotspots issue in your backyard. Sure there are vanishing languages around the globe, but your neighbors might be speakers of one of them. Most people appreciate that diversity is good. You wouldn't want to be allowed to eat only one kind of ice cream flavor or only one type of food always and forever with no options. 

"The loss of any language is a loss for us all. We lose part of the human genius, and with the disappearance of a language also goes a lot of spiritual concepts, art, and so on."

The loss of any language is a loss for us all. We lose part of the human genius, and with the disappearance of a language also goes a lot of spiritual concepts, art, and so on.

There is also the concept that you don't have to be tied to one language, or worse, be forced to learn one over another. You don't have to give up one language for another. People are capable of learning and appreciating more than one language. Multilingualism is the norm in many parts of the world. 

How do you find languages to rescue?

We wait for people to come to us. Native American communities tend to be cautious with outsiders. They are also perfectly capable of finding the information through the media and public information sources, and through word of mouth, if they want to do something about preserving their language.

We will work with any North American community, no matter what the size or the state of their language (unless it has no speakers and was never recorded of course), to see what kinds of solutions might be possible.

If there is a will to maintain the language, we seek to find the way to make it happen. Interested community activists are welcome to contact Enduring Voices or Living Tongues to start the discussion.

The brown pelican, a species once pushed toward extinction by the pesticide DDT, has recovered and is being removed from the list of threatened and endangered species under the U.S. Endangered Species Act.

"At a time when so many species of wildlife are threatened, we once in a while have an opportunity to celebrate an amazing success story," Secretary of the Interior Ken Salazar said when making the announcement this week. "Today is such a day. The brown pelican is back!"

Pelicans are primarily fish-eaters, requiring up to four pounds of fish a day, according to the USFWS Brown Pelican Fact Sheet. "Their diet consists mainly of 'rough' fish such as menhaden, herring, sheepshead, pigfish, mullet, grass minnows, topminnows, and silversides. On the Pacific Coast, pelicans rely heavily on anchovies and sardines. The birds have also been known to eat some crustaceans, usually prawns."

NGS stock photo by Bianca Lavies

The brown pelican (Pelecanus occidentalis) was first declared endangered in 1970 under the Endangered Species Preservation Act, a precursor to the current Endangered Species Act. "Since then, thanks to a ban on DDT and efforts by states, conservation organizations, private citizens and many other partners, the bird has recovered. There are now more than 650,000 brown pelicans found across Florida and the Gulf and Pacific Coasts, as well as in the Caribbean and Latin America," said a statement released by the Department of Interior (DOI).

The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service removed the brown pelican population in Alabama, Georgia, Florida, and northward along the Atlantic Coast states from the list of endangered species in 1985. This week's action removed the remaining population from the list.

The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service estimates the global population of brown pelicans at 650,000 individuals.

NGS stock photo by Bates Littlehales

"After being hunted for its feathers, facing devastating effects from the pesticide DDT and suffering from widespread coastal habitat loss, the pelican has made a remarkable recovery," Assistant Secretary for Fish and Wildlife and Parks Tom Strickland said at a press conference in New Orleans to announce the delisting. "We once again see healthy flocks of pelicans in the air over our shores."

The pelican's recovery is largely due to the federal ban on the general use of the pesticide DDT in 1972, the DOI said. "This action was taken after former U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service biologist Rachel Carson published Silent Spring and alerted the nation to the widespread dangers associated with unrestricted pesticide use."

Measuring up to 54 inches long, weighing 8 to 10 pounds, and having a wingspan between 6-1/2 feet and 7-1/2 feet, brown pelicans are the smallest members of the seven pelican species worldwide, says the USFWS Brown Pelican Fact Sheet. "They can be identified by their chestnut-and-white necks; white heads with pale yellow crowns; brownstreaked back, rump, and tail; blackishbrown belly; grayish bill and pouch; and black legs and feet.

NGS stock photo by Robert Madden

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Director Sam Hamilton praised the Gulf and Pacific Coast states for their constant efforts to restore this iconic coastal species. "Brown pelicans could not have recovered without a strong and continuing support network of partnerships among federal and state government agencies, tribes, conservation organizations, and individual citizens," said Hamilton. "This is truly a success story that the whole nation can celebrate."

In the southwest, the Texas Parks and Wildlife Department, The Nature Conservancy and numerous other conservation organizations helped purchase important nesting sites and developed monitoring programs to ensure pelican rookeries were thriving, the DOI added.

"Louisiana, long known as the 'pelican state,' and the Florida Game and Fresh Water Fish Commission jointly implemented a restoration project. A total of 1,276 young pelicans were captured in Florida and released at three sites in southeastern Louisiana during the 13 years of the project."

Brown pelicans have extremely keen eyesight, states the USFWS Brown Pelican Fact Sheet. "As they fly over the ocean, sometimes at heights of 60 to 70 feet, they can spot a school of small fish or even a single fish. Diving steeply into the water, they may submerge completely or only partly--depending on the height of the dive--and come up with a mouthful of fish. Air sacs beneath their skin cushion the impact and help pelicans surface."

NGS stock photo by Micheal E. Long

Past efforts to protect the brown pelican actually led to the birth of the National Wildlife Refuge System more than a century ago in central Florida, according to the DOI.

"German immigrant Paul Kroegel, appalled by the indiscriminate slaughter of pelicans for their feathers, approached President Theodore Roosevelt. This led Roosevelt to create the first National Wildlife Refuge at Pelican Island in 1903, when Kroegel was named the first refuge manager. Today, the system has grown to 550 national wildlife refuges, many of which have played key roles in the recovery of the brown pelican."

Brown pelicans have few natural enemies. Although ground nests are sometimes destroyed by hurricanes, flooding, or other natural disasters, the biggest threat to pelicans comes from people, says the USFWS Brown Pelican Fact Sheet. "In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, pelicans were hunted for their feathers, which adorned women's clothing, particularly hats."

NGS stock photo by Bates Littlehales

With removal of the brown pelican from the list of threatened and endangered species, federal agencies will no longer be required to consult with the FWS to ensure any action they authorize, fund, or carry out will not harm the species. However, additional federal laws, such as the Migratory Bird Treaty Act and the Lacey Act, will continue to protect the brown pelican, its nests and its eggs, FWS said.

FWS has developed a Post-Delisting Monitoring Plan, designed to monitor and verify that the recovered, delisted population remains secure from the risk of extinction once the protections of the Endangered Species Act are removed. The Service can relist the brown pelican if future monitoring or other information shows it is necessary to prevent a significant risk to the brown pelican.

The pouch suspended from the lower half of the pelican's long, straight bill really can hold up to three times more than the stomach, according to the USFWS Brown Pelican Fact Sheet. "In addition to being used as a dip net, the pouch holds the pelican's catch of fish until the accompanying water--as much as three gallons-- is squeezed out. During this time, laughing gulls may hover above the pelican, or even sit on its bill, ready to steal a fish or two. Once the water is out, the pelican swallows the fish and carries them in its esophagus. The pouch also serves as a cooling mechanism in hot weather and as a feeding trough for young pelicans."

NGS stock photo by Robert Madden

Monitoring brown pelicans from now on will be done in cooperation with the State resource agencies, the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico, U.S. Virgin Islands, Mexico, other federal agencies, non-governmental organizations, and individuals, FWS said this week, adding, that the service is working with state natural resource agencies where the brown pelican occurs to develop cooperative management agreements to ensure that the species continues to be monitored.

Countries that invest in the management and restoration of ecosystems are likely to see far higher rates of return and stronger economic growth in the 21st century, according to a study by 100 experts from science, economics and policy from across the globe.

"Some countries have already made the link to a limited extent and are glimpsing benefits in terms of jobs, livelihoods and economic returns that outstrip those wedded to older economic models of the previous century," says a statement accompanying the release today of a report prepared by The Economics of Ecosystems and Biodiversity (TEEB).

NGS stock photo by Michael Nichols

TEEB was launched by Germany and the European Commission in response to a proposal by the G8+5 Environment Ministers (Potsdam, Germany 2007) to develop a global study on the economics of biodiversity loss. It is an independent study, hosted by the United Nations Environment Programme with financial support from European countries.

In its report released today, TEEB gave these examples of countries already reaping benefits from ecosystem projects:

• In Venezuela, investment in the national protected area system is preventing sedimentation that otherwise could reduce farm earnings by around U.S.$3.5 million a year.
• Planting and protecting nearly 12,000 hectares of mangroves in Vietnam costs just over $1 million but saved annual expenditures on dyke maintenance of well over $7 million.
• One in 40 jobs in Europe is now linked with the environment and ecosystem services ranging from clean tech "eco-industries" to organic agriculture, sustainable forestry and eco-tourism.
• Investment in the protection of Guatemala's Maya Biosphere Reserve is generating an annual of income of close to $50 million a year, createed 7,000 jobs, and boosted local family incomes.

"Accelerate, scale-up and embed investments in the management and restoration of ecosystems."

The TEEB report, The Economics of Ecosystems and Biodiversity, calls on policy-makers to "accelerate, scale-up and embed investments in the management and restoration of ecosystems."

It also calls for more sophisticated cost-benefit analysis before policy decisions are made.

The report cites a study on mangroves in south Thailand on the conversion of mangroves into shrimp farms, an example of cost-benefit analysis that was perhaps not very well thought-through.

"Subsidized commercial shrimp farms can generate returns of around $1,220 per hectare by clearing mangrove forests. But this does not take into account the losses to local communities totaling over $12,000 a hectare linked with wood and non-wood forest products, fisheries and coastal protection services," TEEB said.

"Nor does the profit to the commercial operators take into account the costs of rehabilitating the abandoned sites after five years of exploitation---estimated at over $9,000 a hectare." 

Ecosystem-savvy economy

TEEB's report outlines a plan to catalyze a transition to more ecosystem-savvy economies able to meet the multiple challenges and deliver the multiple opportunities on a planet of six billion people, rising to nine billion by 2050.

Said Pavan Sukhdev, TEEB's study leader, "Nature's multiple and complex values have direct economic impacts on human wellbeing and public and private spending. Recognizing and rewarding the value delivered to society by the natural environment must become a policy priority.

"The economic invisibility of ecosystems and biodiversity is increased by our dominant economic model, which is consumption-led, production-driven, and GDP-measured. This model is in need of significant reform. The multiple crises we are experiencing--fuel, food, finance, and the economy--serve as reminders of the need for change.

"It is now up to governments to provide fiscal or other incentives to move us from short-term opportunism to long-term stewardship. The right policies can help us move toward a resource efficient economy."

The report comes in advance of the United Nations climate convention meeting in Copenhagen where governments are expected to give the green light to funding developing countries to maintain forests, the statement says.

"Close to 20 per cent of current global greenhouse gas emissions are linked with deforestation. Reduced Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation (REDD) aims to counter this while also generating financial flows from North to South.

"REDD and REDD-Plus, which includes not only maintaining forests but planting and recovering forest systems, secured the backing of close 15 presidents and prime ministers at a special meeting hosted last month by UN Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon." (Read about this on Stuart Pimm's blog Better REDD than dead when it comes to climate change.) 

NGS stock photo by James P. Blair

Achim Steiner, UN Under-Secretary General and UNEP Executive Director, said: "Paying developing countries under REDD marks a fundamental step forward in terms of bringing the huge financial importance of ecosystems and biodiversity into the centre of economic activity."

"It could open the door to more creative and forward looking funds and mechanisms covering other nature-based infrastructure such as peatlands and wetlands en route to support for the services generated by coastal and marine ecosystems such as coral reefs to mangroves," he said.

Read on for the key recommendations of The Economics of Ecosystems and Biovidersity:

By James G. Robertson

The Monterey Bay Aquarium Research Institute has new pictures of the worms we wrote about in September, and the number of species identified by scientists has increased from nine to as many as 17.

The researchers have also published some insight into how the worms get food from the bones of dead animals, and how the worms reproduce.  But how they find their food is still a mystery, and will be an area of future research.

Photo: Female bone worm. Image credit: © 2008 Greg Rouse

The worms grow complex root systems into the bones they find on the seafloor, and bacteria within the roots digest proteins and lipids to feed the worms.  The feathery "palps" that wave around in the water are used to get oxygen.  Although we previously reported they only eat whale bones, the researchers have found the worms will also feed from cow bones.

Even more bizarre than their choice of food is the worms' life cycle.  Each worm starts as a microscopic larva, and develops once it finds a bone to land on.  The larvae that colonize the bones all develop into females, while some of the microscopic larvae that don't land never grow and develop into males.  The microscopic males land on the females' "palps," make their way to the females' body tube, and fertilize thousands of eggs, which starts the process over again.

Photo: A microscopic female boneworm.  Image credit: © 2009 Greg Rouse

You can watch a video of the bone worms in the wild, narrated by Robert Vrijenhoek, one of the researchers, below:

All images and video courtesy of the Monterey Bay Aquarium Research Institute.

Canada, Mexico, and the United States have become the first countries to agree formally to cooperate on wilderness conservation measures across a continent, Mexico's President Felipe Calderón announced.

NGS photo by Bianca Lavies

"This Agreement will facilitate the sharing of successful experiences, monitoring, and training of human resources, as well as the financing of projects that will protect and recover wild areas," President Calderón said.

The MOU provisions address ecosystems, migratory wildlife, and natural resources that do not start and end with geographical boundaries, the organizers of the WILD9 conference reported in a statement. "This MOU also encourages cooperative efforts to conduct and share scientific research."

Signed in the three national languages of English, Spanish and French, the agreement is cross-cultural, and respects native approaches to conserving wild nature, accommodation for indigenous customs, priorities for species survival, and national environmental policy, the statement added.

Seven agencies responsible for wilderness management signed the MOU: the Secretariat of the Environment and Natural Resources through the National Commission on Protected Areas (CONANP) of the United Mexican States; the Parks Canada agency of the Government of Canada; the National Park Service, Fish & Wildlife Service, and Bureau of Land Management of the U.S. Department of Interior, and the Forest Service and Office of Ecosystem Services and Markets of the U.S. Department of Agriculture.

Map by NG Maps

The MOU process was facilitated by the WILD9 executive committee and is the result of 18 months of work by the North American Governmental Advisory Committee chaired by Ernesto Enkerlin-Hoeflich, National Commissioner, CONANP, in Mexico.

"Mexican legislation currently allows for incorporating the concept of wilderness in our protected area operations and private lands certification," Enkerlin-Hoeflich said. "We are close to having it formally incorporated into environmental law. This MOU builds on our tradition of trilateral cooperation. It will greatly benefit Mexico as it shares and learns from the Canadian and U.S. experiences such that wilderness conservation, while respecting each country's institutions and regulations, works seamlessly in North America.

The National Geographic Society is a sponsor of WILD9.

Prompt action is needed at the federal level to limit the number of invasive pythons released into the wild, South Florida Water Management District (SFWMD) Deputy Executive Director George Horne said in written testimony to the U.S. Congress today.

The House of Representatives Subcommittee on Crime, Terrorism and Homeland Security is considering a Bill that would classify nonnative pythons, such as the Burmese python, as "injurious animals" and ban their importation into the United States.

Hypothetical diet necessary for a hatchling Burmese python to reach 13 feet in the Florida Everglades (approximately 5 to 7 years)

1 raccoon
1 oppossum
4 five-foot alligators
5 American coots
6 little blue herons
8 ibises
10 squirrels
15 rabbits
15 wrens
30 cotton rats
72 mice

This illustration and the photos on this page were appended to the SFWMD written testimony handed to Congress today.

(Source: Skip Snow, Everglades National Park & Dr. Stephen Secor, University of Alabama)

"As a top predator and prolific breeder, these exotic snakes threaten state and federal efforts to restore America's Everglades, and they prey on the natural wildlife that call the Everglades home, including species already threatened or endangered," SFWMD's Horne said in the agency's testimony to Congress.

"We have a long history of successful invasive plant management and experience, but only recently have we had to commit more and more resources to the emerging populations of the Burmese python and other nonnative constrictors appearing across our landscape.

"Today, however, the negative impacts from the unlimited importation of new pest animals require active responses on our part. Effective prevention of additional introductions of potentially invasive constrictor snakes, as proposed in this Bill, is the only path to prevent these costs from continually increasing."

While Florida, California and Hawaii are among the states most impacted by introduced invasive species, every state is affected, Horne added.

Photo of Burmese python killed in Florida courtesy of SFWMD

"Globally, exotic invasive species, including pest animals, weeds and pathogenic diseases, are a major cause of global biodiversity decline. In particular, nonnative animals compete for food and habitat, upset existing predator/prey relationships, degrade environmental quality, spread diseases and, in our case, may threaten the integrity of flood protection levees and canal banks, and electrical power delivery.

"Nationally, more than 50,000 species of introduced plants, animals and microbes cause more than $120 billion in damages and control costs each year. Already, 192 nonnative animal species are established in Florida, calling for the development of methods to forecast and respond to the potential economic loss, environmental damage and social stress caused by both new nonnative animal introductions and long-established invasive organisms," Horne said.

The Bill before Congress makes an important contribution towards prevention by limiting the importation of two snake species (the Burmese and African pythons) with high invasion potentials in the U.S., Horne said.

"The amendment could also be expanded to include all giant constrictor species determined by the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) to have medium or high invasion risk potential. The recently published USGS risk assessment for giant constrictors ranked nine species as having either a medium or high overall risk potential for invasion in the United States.

"These species include the Beni Anaconda, boa constrictor, Burmese python, DeSchauensee's anaconda, green anaconda, northern African python, southern African python, reticulated python, and yellow anaconda."

Photo of Burmese python killed in Florida courtesy of SFWMD

"We strongly support inclusion of these species in [the Bill] in order to immediately limit importation of species that our best science predicts will be invasive," Horne added.

"Rather than wait for the next Burmese python to become established in the United States, a proactive approach such as the proposed legislation being discussed today is urgently needed to protect our environment, economy and quality of life--not just in Florida but throughout the nation."

The South Florida Water Management District is deeply committed to preserving and restoring South Florida's environmental health and, unfortunately, the Everglades ecosystem is now home to the invasive Burmese python, Horne said.

Fifty-two eggs were inside a 16-foot Burmese python found in May, 2009 by South Florida Water Management District officials south of the Tamiami Trail in Miami-Dade County, Florida.

Photo courtesy of SFWMD

The snake is a top predator that is known to prey upon more than 20 native Florida species. Notable among these are the federally listed Key Largo wood rat, white-tailed deer, American alligator, bobcat and numerous wading birds common to the Everglades, including the wood stork.

"Attempts to manage Burmese pythons divert taxpayers' funds from these other urgent primary restoration and protection tasks. Yet, failure to do so will leave this aggressive animal as a serious impediment to our Everglades restoration progress," Horne said.

Small livestock likely prey

The Burmese python also threatens agricultural interests as small livestock are also likely prey, Horne added.

Since 2000, the South Florida Water Management District and Everglades National Park have removed 1,248 Burmese pythons from the Everglades.

"Experience already gained in Florida strongly indicates the need to regulate the importation and sale of this snake. Without stronger regulation and control resources, adverse impacts of Burmese pythons will continue to get worse, and the python's population will continue to expand north of the Everglades and likely into South
Florida's urban areas."

Burmese python nest eggs found in Miami-Dade County in Florida

Photo courtesy of SFWMD

Florida's other nonnative giant constrictors

Given South Florida's abrupt boundaries between dense human population centers and vast subtropical wilderness areas, it comes as no surprise that numerous giant constrictor species have been observed in Florida, Horne said.

"While most observed animals are presumed to be released pets, three additional constrictor species are now considered established or potentially established in Florida--the common boa, northern African python and yellow anaconda.

"All three species are identified in the USGS risk assessment as having a high overall risk of establishment in the
United States. The common boa has been repeatedly observed in South Florida, primarily on the Deering Estate in eastern Miami-Dade County, but also near Everglades National Park.

"Between 1989 and 2005, 96 common boas were captured in South Florida.

"Recent confirmed sightings of northern African pythons near the eastern boundary of the Everglades and yellow anacondas near Big Cypress National Preserve and Myakka State Park in southwest Florida are also cause for alarm."

"Recent confirmed sightings of northern African pythons near the eastern boundary of the Everglades and yellow anacondas near Big Cypress National Preserve and Myakka State Park in southwest Florida are also cause for alarm. All three of these species share traits with the Burmese python that are considered important factors for invasive potential, and like the Burmese python all three species will be very costly to control should they become widely established."

As the South Florida Water Management District and other agencies try to contain the documented damage and growing threat of the Burmese python and other invasive animals in Florida, the flow of potentially harmful exotic animals across U.S. borders continues, Horne said.

"To use just one example, roughly 144,000 boa constrictors were imported into the United States between
2000 and 2007. Federal action is needed now to address the immediate threat posed by giant constrictors which have or are likely to establish in our nation's wilderness areas."

Map courtesy of USGS

You might also be interested in:

Reptile owners weigh in on invasive snake issue
The people who say they know most about boas and pythons, the pet reptile owners and traders, have different perspectives about what's needed to prevent and reverse the problem of the snakes breeding in the wild.

100-pound albino python seized from Florida Panhandle home

Nine giant invasive snake species threaten U.S. ecosystems, study finds

Pythons in Florida: Who are you Going to Call?
Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation Commission appeals to residents of the state to report wildlife law violations. FWC also hosts amnesty days for people to turn over for placement giant snakes they can no longer keep as pets.

Pythons in Florida Everglades: Is the Snake Invasion Only Beginning?

The 2009 update of the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species shows that 17,291 species out of the 47,677 assessed species are threatened with extinction, the International Union for the Conservation of Nature said today.

Threatened with extinction are:

• 21 percent of all known mammals
• 30 percent of all known amphibians
• 12 percent of all known birds
• 28 percent of assessed reptiles
• 37 percent of assessed freshwater fishes
• 70 percent of assessed plants
• 35 percent of assessed invertebrates

"The scientific evidence of a serious extinction crisis is mounting," said Jane Smart, director of IUCN's Biodiversity Conservation Group, in a news statement accompanying the 2009 Red List.

This gorgeted puffleg (Eriocnemis isabellae) entered the IUCN Red List in 2009 as Critically Endangered. The species is known from southwest Colombia, where it occurs in a tiny area of the Serraníadel Pinche. The global population is not known but is presumably very small given that the area of suitable habitat available for this species is thought to be less than 2,500 acres, and it is suspected to be decreasing as elfin forest habitat is converted for agriculture and illegal coca plantations. The primary threat to this bird is the shifting of the agricultural border towards remaining primary forests, causing a loss of vegetation cover, contamination of watersheds and soil degradation. Illegal coca cultivation is a major threat due to the lack of governmental presence, with 8.3 percent of potentially suitable habitat reportedly damaged annually by coca cultivation.

Photo © Alex Cortes. Photo supplied by BirdLife International.

"It's time for governments to start getting serious about saving species and make sure it's high on their agendas for next year, as we're rapidly running out of time."

"January sees the launch of the International Year of Biodiversity," Jane Smart added in today's statement. "The latest analysis of the IUCN Red List shows the 2010 target to reduce biodiversity loss will not be met.

"It's time for governments to start getting serious about saving species and make sure it's high on their agendas for next year, as we're rapidly running out of time."

Tip of the iceberg

"This year's IUCN Red List makes for sobering reading," said Craig Hilton-Taylor, manager of the IUCN Red List Unit. "These results are just the tip of the iceberg. We have only managed to assess 47,663 species so far; there are many more millions out there which could be under serious threat. We do, however, know from experience that conservation action works so let's not wait until it's too late and start saving our species now."

Rabb's fringe-limbed treefrog (Ecnomiohyla rabborum) entered the IUCN Red List as Critically Endangered in 2009.

It is known only from central Panama, where it occurs in tropical forest canopy. In 2006, the chytrid fungus was reported in the area where this species is known to occur. Since then, only one individual has been heard calling. There is also some ongoing forest clearing within the species' range for the development of luxury holiday homes, although this potential threat has not yet reached critical levels. This treefrog is one of several species collected for captive breeding efforts, however so far attempts at captive breeding have not produced positive results.

Photo © Brad Wilson

Switzerland-based IUCN is a global environment organization that works on biodiversity, climate change, energy, human livelihoods and greening the world economy by supporting research, managing field projects, and bringing governments, NGOs, the United Nations and corporations together to develop policy, laws and best practice.

The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species is a comprehensive information source on the global conservation status of plant and animal species. It is based on an objective system for assessing the risk of extinction of a species should no conservation action be taken. Species are assigned to one of eight categories of threat based on whether they meet criteria linked to population trend, population size and structure and geographic range. Species listed as Critically Endangered, Endangered or Vulnerable are collectively described as "Threatened."

Photo © Gerald Allen

Highlights from today's IUCN statement:

Mammals

Of the world's 5,490 mammals, 79 are Extinct or Extinct in the Wild, with 188 Critically Endangered, 449 Endangered and 505 Vulnerable.

The eastern voalavo (Voalavo antsahabensis) appears on the IUCN Red List for the first time in the Endangered category. This rodent, endemic to Madagascar, is confined to montane tropical forest and is under threat from slash-and-burn farming.

Reptiles

There are now 1,677 reptiles on the IUCN Red List, with 293 added this year. In total, 469 are threatened with extinction and 22 are already Extinct or Extinct in the Wild.

The 165 endemic Philippine species new to the IUCN Red List include the Panay monitor lizard (Varanus mabitang), which is Endangered. This highly-specialized monitor lizard is threatened by habitat loss due to agriculture and logging and is hunted by humans for food.

The rare Panay monitor lizard occurs in large trees in primary lowland tropical moist forest. The species is a highly specialized frugivorous monitor lizard (it feeds on fruit). The loss and degradation of lowland forest habitat through conversion of land for agricultural use and logging operations is a threat to this lizard. The species is also hunted by humans for food and overhunting is a serious threat to the remaining population.

Photo © Tim Laman 

The sail-fin water lizard (Hydrosaurus pustulatus) enters in the Vulnerable category and is also threatened by habitat loss. Hatchlings are heavily collected both for the pet trade and for local consumption.

"The world's reptiles are undoubtedly suffering, but the picture may be much worse than it currently looks," says Simon Stuart, chair of IUCN's Species Survival Commission. "We need an assessment of all reptiles to understand the severity of the situation, but we don't have the U.S.$2-3 million to carry it out."

Amphibians

The IUCN Red List shows that 1,895 of the planet's 6,285 amphibians are in danger of extinction, making them the most threatened group of species known to date. Of these, 39 are already Extinct or Extinct in the Wild, 484 are Critically Endangered, 754 are Endangered and 657 are Vulnerable.

Photo © Tim Herman

The fungus also affected the Rabb's fringe-limbed treefrog, which enters the Red List as Critically Endangered. (See photo and description higher on this page.)

Plants

Of the 12,151 plants on the IUCN Red List, 8,500 are threatened with extinction, with 114 already Extinct or Extinct in the Wild.

The Queen of the Andes (Puya raimondii) has been reassessed and remains in the Endangered category. Found in the Andes of Peru and Bolivia, it only produces seeds once in 80 years before dying. Climate change may already be impairing its ability to flower and cattle roam freely among many colonies, trampling or eating young plants. Other threats include young plants being eaten or trampled by livestock, fires, and removal of pith from trunks.

Photo © Antonio Lambe (Acción Ambiental)

Toussaintia patriciae is an Endangered shrub species native to Tanzania. It is known from less than 30 trees in the Udzwunga Mountains National Park and West Kilombero Nature Reserve, and occurs in very low numbers where found, though it is cryptic when not flowering and may be more common that is currently known. It is considered relatively secure at present, as the population is present in protected areas and occurs above the altitude to which firewood collectors are allowed to operate. However, this species could become more threatened very quickly if the impacts of human activities, especially wood collection, were to increase.

Photo © Quentin Luke

Invertebrates

There are now 7,615 invertebrates on the IUCN Red List this year, 2,639 of which are threatened with extinction. Scientists added 1,360 dragonflies and damselflies, bringing the total to 1,989, of which 261 are threatened.

The giant jewel (Chlorocypha centripunctata) is known from the Obudu Plateau, Nigeria and from Mount Kupe and the Bakossi Mountains Cameroon. The species occurs in and around rain forest streams above 700-meter altitude. Habitat loss through selective logging and forest destruction for agricultural expansion is the main threat to this species. The species entered the IUCN Red List as Vulnerable in 2009.

Photo © Kai Schütte

Molluscs

Scientists also added 94 molluscs, bringing the total number assessed to 2,306, of which 1,036 are threatened.

All seven freshwater snails from Lake Dianchi in Yunnan Province, China, are new to the IUCN Red List and all are threatened. These join 13 freshwater fishes from the same area, 12 of which are threatened. The main threats are pollution, introduced fish species and overharvesting.

Freshwater Fishes

There are now 3,120 freshwater fishes on the IUCN Red List, up 510 species from last year. Although there is still a long way to go before the status all the world's freshwater fishes is known, 1,147 of those assessed so far are threatened with extinction.

Photo © Chavalit Vidthayanon

The brown mudfish (Neochanna apoda), found only in New Zealand, has been moved from Near Threatened to Vulnerable as it has disappeared from many areas in its range. Approximately 85-90 percent of New Zealand's wetlands have been lost or degraded through drainage schemes, irrigation and land development.

The status of the Australian grayling (Prototroctes maraena), a freshwater fish, has improved as a result of conservation efforts. Now classed as Near Threatened as opposed to Vulnerable, the population has recovered thanks to fish ladders which have been constructed over dams to allow migration, enhanced riverside vegetation and the education of fishermen, who now face heavy penalties if found with this species

"Creatures living in freshwater have long been neglected."

"Creatures living in freshwater have long been neglected. This year we have again added a large number of them to the IUCN Red List and are confirming the high levels of threat to many freshwater animals and plants. This reflects the state of our precious water resources. There is now an urgency to pursue our effort but most importantly to start using this information to move towards a wise use of water resources," said Jean-Christophe Vié, deputy head of the IUCN Species Programme.

Downlisted bird species

The Mauritius fody (Foudia rubra) was downlisted from Critically Endangered to Endangered because its extremely small population has been stable since the early 1990s and is now increasing following an island translocation. The species is restricted to southwest Mauritius, and suffered rapid population declines between 1975 and 1993. However, since 1993 the population has been stable, and there is evidence that dispersing juveniles are now setting up new breeding territories, expanding the range of the species. Historically, clearance of upland forest, particularly for plantations in the 1970s, catastrophically affected this species. Introduced predators (e.g. black rat (Rattus rattus) and crab-eating macaque (Macaca fascicularis)) caused almost total breeding failure in most areas, and nest predation is still the major threat to the species.

Photo © Lucy Garrett (Rare Birds Yearbook). Photo supplied by BirdLife International.

Global figures for 2009 IUCN Red List of Threatened Species:
Total species assessed = 47,677
Total Extinct or Extinct in the Wild = 875 (2%) [Extinct = 809; Extinct in the Wild = 66].
Total threatened = 17,291 (36%) [Critically Endangered = 3,325; Endangered = 4,891; Vulnerable = 9,075].
Total Near Threatened = 3,650 (8%).
Total Lower Risk/conservation dependent = 281 (<1%) [this is an old category that is gradually being phased out of the Red List]
Total Data Deficient = 6,557 (14%)
Total Least Concern = 19,023 (40%)

Global figures for 2008 IUCN Red List of Threatened Species:
Total assessed = 44,838
Total Extinct or Extinct in the Wild = 869 (2%) [Extinct = 804 ; Extinct in the Wild = 65]
Total threatened = 16,928 (38%) [Critically Endangered = 3,246; Endangered = 4,770; Vulnerable = 8,912]
Total Near Threatened = 3,513 (8%)
Total Lower Risk/conservation dependent = 283 (<1%) [this is an old category that is gradually being phased out of the Red List]
Total Data Deficient = 5,570 (12%)
Total Least Concern = 17,675 (39%)

Not all species on the IUCN Red List are threatened. There are now more species on the IUCN Red List. This means that the overall percentage of threatened species has gone down by two percent. This is not because the status of the world's biodiversity is improving, IUCN noted, but because we have assessed more species.

"In the past, Red List assessments often focused on species that were already thought to be threatened, but as the Red List grows to include more complete assessments across entire groups, we are beginning to have a better idea of the relative proportion of species which are threatened against those which are not threatened."

Bronx Zoo and other zoos in New York City know how to lay on a party for their animals. Halloween is too good an opportunity to miss.

Zoo photographer Julie Larsen Maher frequently submits photos for our "Zoo News" feature on this blog. Halloween 2009 is no exception.

The animals were photographed in the Bronx Zoo, Prospect Park Zoo, Queens Zoo, Central Park Zoo,  and the New York Aquarium--all operated in the New York area by the Wildlife Conservation Society.

Here is a selection of some of Julie Larsen's Halloween photos:

Photo of snow leopard with pumpkin at central Park Zoo by Julie Larsen Maher

WCS photo of ananconda with pumpkin by Julie Larsen Maher

WCS photo of meerkats and pumpkin by Julie Larsen Maher

WCS photo of radiated tortoise exploring Halloween snack by Julie Larsen Maher

WCS photo of Andean bear demolishing pumpkin by Julie Larsen Maher

WCS photo of leaf insect by Julie Larsen Maher

WCS photo of octopus and pumpkin by Julie Larsen Maher

WCS photo of pumpkin and Madagascar hissing cockroaches by Julie Larsen Maher

WCS photo of saki monkey eyeing a pumpkin by Julie Larsen Maher

WCS photo of porcupine at Halloween by Julie Larsen Maher

WCS photo of king vulture at Halloween by Julie Larsen Maher

WCS photo of lace monitor at Halloween by Julie Larsen Maher

WCS photo of Surinam horned frog at Halloween by Julie Larsen Maher

WCS photo of python at Halloween by Julie Larsen Maher

WCS photo of sea lion at Halloween by Julie Larsen Maher

WCS photo of Pallas's cat at Halloween by Julie Larsen Maher

More photos of animals:  Zoo News >>

Vila, the third-oldest western lowland gorilla in the U.S., celebrated her 52nd birthday at the San Diego Zoo's Wild Animal Park today by unwrapping presents full of fruit, nuts and seeds, and eating a peanut-butter frosted banana ice cake topped with carrot "candles," the zoo said in a caption sent to us with this photo.

Photo courtesy San Diego Zoo's Wild Animal Park

"For the party, the gorilla enclosure at the Wild Animal Park was decorated with flowers, ginger leaves, 'Happy Birthday' signs stuck to rocks with peanut butter, and streamers in hues of pink, yellow, blue and orange. The entire six-member troop celebrated the milestone, enjoying treats and presents through the morning.

"Vila has some age-related issues so she gets senior vitamins and medicine for arthritis. But, she has no trouble getting around, something she proved today when she grabbed a present and took it into a cave to open in private," the zoo said.

Born in Africa in 1957, Vila was hand-raised at the San Diego Zoo's Children's Zoo. "She has four grand-gorillas, four great-grand-gorillas and three great-great-grand-gorillas. They live at the San Diego Zoo, the San Diego Zoo's Wild Animal Park and at two other zoos in the U.S.," the zoo added.

In the latest crackdown on nonnative giant pet snakes in Florida, Fish and Wildlife Conservation Commission (FWC) investigators have confiscated an 11-foot, albino Burmese python living uncaged in a private residence.

Photo courtesy of Florida Fish and Wildlife Commission

Acting on a tip that a Crestview resident had a "large snake" that had escaped before, FWC officers were "amazed" to find the snake they estimated to weigh 100 pounds, the FWC said in a statement.

The resident was charged with possession of a reptile of concern without a permit, housing a reptile of concern in an unsafe manner, and resisting arrest without violence, the FWC said. All three charges are second-degree misdemeanors, punishable by fines of up to U.S. $500 and a maximum 60-day jail sentence.

"It was obvious children were in and out of the house. With a snake that size, that's just a disaster waiting to happen."

"There was no sign of a cage for the snake in the home, but the really shocking thing is there were mattresses on the floor along with the clothing of small children," said FWC Investigator Jerry Shores. "There weren't any children in the home when we were there, but it was obvious children were in and out of the house. With a snake that size, that's just a disaster waiting to happen."

Shores said the python was seized and is being held until the owner of the animal appears before an Okaloosa County judge.

"While most of the news in the past few months has been about the spread of Burmese pythons in the wild in South Florida and the recent strangulation death of a 2-year-old Sumter County child in her own bed by the family snake, there have been few reported python incidents in the Florida Panhandle, until now," FWC said.

Escaped python found in chicken coop

"Just two weeks ago," Shores said, "charges were filed with the State Attorney's office against a Wewahitchka man for numerous reptile violations after his 11-foot-long Burmese python escaped and was killed in a neighbor's chicken coop."

The owner of that reptile had no cage for his snake and let it freely crawl about his apartment in Wewahitchka, FWC said.

Under captive wildlife rules, anyone possessing one of the nonnative reptiles classified as reptiles of concern--including Burmese pythons, amethystine pythons, reticulated pythons, African rock pythons, green anacondas and Nile monitor lizards--must obtain a $100 reptile of concern permit and adhere to caging requirements based on the size of the reptile. They also must keep a written and approved contingency plan in case of escape or natural disaster.

The rules for captive wildlife went into effect in January 2008. People who owned reptiles of concern prior to the effective date are still required to purchase the reptile of concern permit, FWC said.

Pet Amnesty Days

The FWC hosts Pet Amnesty Days several times a year. At these events, people who can no longer keep nonnatives as pets can turn them over to the FWC for placement. The next Pet Amnesty Day will be held at Busch Gardens in Tampa on November 7.

For more information on Burmese pythons and other reptiles of concern, visit MyFWC.com and click on "Burmese pythons" under Quick Clicks. To report wildlife law violations, call the toll-free Wildlife Alert Hotline at 888-404-3922.

Josh Greenhut (center), an author of Flat Stanley's Worldwide Adventure Series, reads some of Flat Stanley's latest book "The Japanese Ninja Surprise," to third graders from Washington D.C.'s Sheridan School in the Main Reading Room of the Library of Congress' Thomas Jefferson Building earlier this week.

Photo courtesy Adventures by Disney

Next BIG Adventure

The occasion also marked the launch of a project called "The Search for Flat Stanley's Next BIG Adventure."

In this nationwide contest, children ages 7 to 12 can win an Adventures by Disney vacation by creating a specially themed Flat Stanley and a 150-word story about his "Next BIG Adventure," the organizers, Adventures by Disney and HarperCollins Children's Books, said in a news statement.

Entries will be judged in three age groups--one for 7 to 8-year-olds, one for 9 to 10-year-olds and one for 11 to 12-year-olds. One winner will be chosen in each age group and each of the three winners can choose one of Adventures by Disney's 19 worldwide vacations for their prize. The contest runs through November 30, 2009.

Flat Stanley was introduced by author Jeff Brown more than 45 years ago and has inspired a worldwide phenomenon, the organizers said in their statement.

"In what's become a popular tradition, parents and kids take Flat Stanley with them on vacation or send him to friends and family in different cities.

"Flat Stanley's picture is taken in various locations, and the children report back to their classes on Flat Stanley's adventures.

"In Flat Stanley's Worldwide Adventures, Flat Stanley continues to inspire creativity in classrooms across America with his entertaining adventures that are also lessons in geography."

• Researchers at the University of California, Santa Barbara have developed a new chemical process to produce polymers used in plastic solar cells, the university announced this weekend.  The new process cuts the time needed to produce the polymers by almost half, and allows the molecules to carry more current for their size.  And because the new method takes less time to produce new plastics, it also allows researchers to develop and test more plastics that may be more efficient and last longer.
• University of Calgary researchers have discovered a material that allows a certain type of fuel cell, called a polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cell (or PEM cell), to operate at higher temperatures, making them cheaper and more efficient.  Current PEM technology uses platinum, an expensive metal, as part of the reaction that converts hydrogen and oxygen into water and electrical energy. The higher temperature would allow use of less-expensive metals and make the electricity-producing reaction faster.
• Georgia Tech researchers have found a new ceramic used in another type of fuel cell, the solid-oxide fuel cell (SOFC), that allows them to operate at lower temperatures.  Solid-oxide fuel cells use hydrocarbon fuel like propane or natural gas to produce electricity.  Existing SOFCs needed high-temperature steam to operate, required more expensive low-sulfur fuels, and suffered from a buildup of carbon on the electricity-carrying parts of the cell.  The new material takes care of all of these problems, but still needs further testing to see how long it will last.

Five giant non-native snake species would pose high risks to the health of ecosystems in the United States should they become established in the country, the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) said today.

A 300-page report prepared by the agency details the risks of nine non-native boa, anaconda and python species that are invasive or potentially invasive in the U.S.

Burmese python (Python molurus), a Giant Constrictor Snake

Photo courtesy of Roy Wood, National Park Service

"Because all nine species share characteristics associated with greater risks, none was found to be a low ecological risk," USGS said in a statement released with the report.

Two of the giant snake species are documented as reproducing in the wild in South Florida, with population estimates for Burmese pythons in the tens of thousands, the agency noted.

Photo courtesy of Lori Oberhofer, National Park Service

Small risk to people

Based on the biology and known natural history of the giant constrictors, individuals of some species may also pose a small risk to people, although most snakes would not be large enough to consider a person as suitable prey, USGS added.

"Mature individuals of the largest species---Burmese, reticulated, and northern and southern African pythons---have been documented as attacking and killing people in the wild in their native range, though such unprovoked attacks appear to be quite rare," the report authors wrote. The snake most associated with unprovoked human fatalities in the wild is the reticulated python.

"The situation with human risk is similar to that experienced with alligators: attacks in the wild are improbable but possible."

"The situation with human risk is similar to that experienced with alligators: attacks in the wild are improbable but possible."

"This report clearly reveals that these giant snakes threaten to destabilize some of our most precious ecosystems and parks, primarily through predation on vulnerable native species," said Robert Reed, a coauthor of the report and a USGS invasive species scientist and herpetologist.

Photo courtesy of Mike Rochford, University of Florida.

USGS sorted the giant snakes into high-risk and medium-risk categories.

"High-risk species are Burmese pythons, northern and southern African pythons, boa constrictors, and yellow anacondas. High-risk species, if established in this country, put larger portions of the U.S. mainland at risk, constitute a greater ecological threat, or are more common in trade and commerce.

"Medium-risk species were reticulated python, DeSchauensee's anaconda, green anaconda, and Beni anaconda. These species constitute lesser threats in these areas, but still are potentially serious threats.

"Because all nine species share characteristics associated with greater risks, none was found to be low-risk."

A female Burmese python on her nest with eggs. Photo by Jemeema Carrigan, University of Florida. Courtesy of Skip Snow, National Park Service

The USGS scientists who authored the report emphasized that native U.S. birds, mammals, and reptiles in areas of potential invasion have never had to deal with huge predatory snakes before, the agency said in its statement.

"Individuals of the largest three species reach lengths of more than 20 feet and upwards of 200 pounds. The reticulated python is the world's longest snake, and the green anaconda is the heaviest snake. Both species have been found in the wild in South Florida, although breeding populations are not yet confirmed for either.

"Breeding populations have been confirmed in South Florida for Burmese pythons and the boa constrictor, and there is strong evidence that the northern African python may have a breeding population in the wild as well."

Photo courtesy of Lori Oberhofer, NPS

"Compounding their risk to native species and ecosystems is that these snakes mature early, produce large numbers of offspring, travel long distances, and have broad diets that allow them to eat most native birds and mammals," said Gordon Rodda, a USGS scientist at the Fort Collins Science Center and the other coauthor of the report.

"Boa constrictors and northern African pythons...already live wild in the Miami metropolitan area."

In addition, he said, most of these snakes can inhabit a variety of habitats and are quite tolerant of urban or suburban areas. Boa constrictors and northern African pythons, for example, already live wild in the Miami metropolitan area.

This map from the USGS report suggests how much of the United States has a climate suitable (green area) for the establishment of the Burmese python. 

Eradication is difficult

The report notes that there are no control tools yet that seem adequate for eradicating an established population of giant snakes once they have spread over a large area. "Making the task of eradication more difficult is that in the wild these snakes are extremely difficult to find since their camouflaged coloration enables them to blend in well with their surroundings," USGS added.

Yellow anaconda (Eunectes notaeus) specimen captured at Big Cypress National Preserve. Photo courtesy of Skip Snow, National Park Service.

The lesson of Guam

"We have a cautionary tale with the American island of Guam and the brown treesnake," said Reed. "Within 40 years of its arrival, this invasive snake has decimated the island's native wildlife--10 of Guam's 12 native forest birds, one of its two bat species, and about half of its native lizards are gone. The python introduction to Florida is so recent that the tally of ecological damage cannot yet be made."

The researchers used the best available science to forecast areas of the country most at risk of invasion by these giant snakes, USGS said.

The USGS map shows where in the U.S. the climate is suitable for establishment of the southern African python.

"Based on climate alone, many of the species would be limited to the warmest areas of the United States, including parts of Florida, extreme south Texas, Hawaii, and America's tropical islands, such as Puerto Rico, Guam, and other Pacific islands," the agency said.

"For a few species, however, larger areas of the continental United States appear to exhibit suitable climatic conditions. For example, much of the southern U.S. climatic conditions are similar to those experienced by the Burmese python in its native range.

However, many factors other than climate alone can influence whether a species can establish a population in a particular location," the report notes.

The Fish and Wildlife Service and the National Park Service will use the report to assist in further development of management actions concerning the snakes when and where these species appear in the wild.

In addition, the risk assessment will provide current, science-based information for management authorities to evaluate prospective regulations that might prevent further colonization of the U.S. by these snakes, USGS said.

Scientific names of the invasive giant snakes

Indian or Burmese python (Python molurus)
Northern African python (Python sebae)
Southern African python (Python natalensis)
Reticulated python (Python [or Broghammerus] reticulatus)
Boa constrictor (Boa constrictor)
Green anaconda (Eunectes murinus)
Yellow anaconda (Eunectes notaeus)
Beni or Bolivian anaconda (Eunectes beniensis)
De Schauensee's anaconda (Eunectes deschauenseei)

Giant Constrictor Risk Assessment:
Frequently Asked Questions (USGS)

A spectacular and extremely rare textile, woven from naturally golden-colored silk thread produced by more than one million spiders in Madagascar, went on display today in the American Museum of Natural History in New York.

"This magnificent contemporary textile, measuring 11 feet by 4 feet, took four years to make using a painstaking technique developed more than 100 years ago," AMNH said in a statement.

"This unique textile was created drawing on the legacy of a French missionary, Jacob Paul Camboué, who worked with spiders in Madagascar in the 1880s and 1890s.

"Camboué worked to collect and weave spider silk but with limited success, and no surviving textile is now known to exist.

"Previously, the only known spider-silk textile of note was exhibited at the Exposition Universelle in Paris in 1900, and it was subsequently lost."

Webs on telephone wires

Producing the spider silk---the only example of its kind displayed anywhere in the world---involved the efforts of 70 people who collected spiders daily from webs on telephone wires, using long poles, AMNH said.

"These spiders were all collected during the rainy season (the only time when they produce silk) from Antananarivo, the capital of Madagascar, and the surrounding countryside.

"These giant spider webs are a well-known feature of the capital, and frequently surprise international visitors."

"These giant spider webs are a well-known feature of the capital, and frequently surprise international visitors."

A dozen more people were needed to draw the silk from the spiders with hand-powered machines, with each spider producing about 80 feet of silk filament, the museum explained.

"This intricately-patterned spider silk features stylized birds and flowers and is based on a weaving tradition known as lamba Akotifahana from the highlands of Madagascar, an art reserved for the royal and upper classes of the Merina people (who are concentrated in the Central highlands).

"Silkworm silk has been used for a long period in Madagascar, however, there is no tradition of weaving spider silk in Madagascar."

In this unique lamba cloth, the individual threads used for weaving are made by twisting 96 to 960 individual spider silk filaments together.

Photo of spider silk textile by R. Mickens/courtesy American Museum of Natural History 

By the American Museum of Natural History

• The silk fiber was gathered from the female golden orb spider (Nephila madagascariensis), which is renowned for the lustrous golden hue of its silk fiber. The male spider does not produce silk.
• The golden orb spider of Madagascar is one of about 36 members of the Nephila genus. These spiders are found throughout the tropics and are known as golden orb weavers for their big, gold-colored webs. The webs can often be seen between telephone and electrical wires---and are sometimes large enough to span a one-lane road.
• Almost all silk fabric is made from silkworm moth cocoons, but people have occasionally tried to make cloth from spider silk. One of the biggest challenges is the cannibalistic nature of spiders, which makes it very difficult to raise them in captivity, unlike silkworms. Spiders can be collected in the wild and then placed in a device to keep them still so the silk can be drawn. Afterward, the spiders are released back into the wild.
• For its weight, spider silk is stronger than steel, but---unlike steel---it can stretch up to 40 percent of its normal length. Scientists are trying to produce this intriguing material artificially on a large scale for possible uses on the battlefield, in surgery, for space exploration, and elsewhere.
• Since raising spiders has proven difficult, researchers are investigating ways to replicate spider silk to avoid harvesting. However, spider silk is difficult to mimic in a lab because the silk begins as a liquid in the spider's gland, becoming a remarkably strong, water-resistant solid after following a complicated course through the spider's interior.

Golden-silk spider (Nephila clavipes) photo courtesy USGS

More than 20,000 North Americans are afflicted each year by Lyme disease, a bacterial infection that is carried by the blacklegged tick (also known as the deer tick).

But although the ticks are spreading across the continent, Lyme disease is not a problem everywhere they are found. Scientists are hoping that if they can find out why, they might be able to unravel the secrets of Lyme disease that would help people avoid infection.

A penny illustrates the size of the deer tick.

Photo by Graham Hickling, University of Tennessee.

"These ticks are on the move. As ticks expand into new areas, more people will likely become infected," said Michigan State University fisheries and wildlife assistant professor Jean Tsao, who will lead the four-year study. (Tsao is in the picture below, courtesy MSU.)

"Our study also has practical goals--we aim to provide the health community and the public in the various states with some reassurance, or warning, about what their future will hold for spread of Lyme disease.

"Understanding the reasons why Lyme disease is such a problem in some areas will help us manage the disease better, and lower the risk to human health."

In 30 years, the tiny blacklegged tick has cut a huge swath through 10 northern states by carrying a bacterial infection now annually afflicting more than 20,000 North Americans, according to MSU. "Curiously, the same parasite commonly known as the deer tick also is found in southern states, where Lyme disease is comparatively rare," the university said in a statement about Tsao's project.

"Researchers do not know how climate, vertebrate biodiversity, tick genetics or other factors affect the maintenance of the pathogen and its relative abundance in an area," Tsao said. "So as the ticks spread, will tick populations in new areas be infected like northern populations or mainly clean of infection like southern populations?"

Lyme disease risk map courtesy CDC

The disease has a range of symptoms including rash, fatigue, joint aches and shooting pain, and now is widespread in Minnesota and Wisconsin and along the northeastern seaboard, MSU added.

"And although ticks also are found in the forests of the Upper Peninsula and eastern Lake Michigan shoreline, the disease has yet to make serious inroads in Michigan beyond Menominee County in the southwestern Upper Peninsula."

That might not be the case for long, Tsao said, as infected ticks ride deer, mice, birds and other hosts into new areas.

Illustration courtesy CDC

Her colleague Edward Walker's lab discovered recently established populations of Lyme disease ticks in southwestern Michigan in the early 2000s, she noted, and during the last six years MSU doctoral student Sarah Hamer has tracked the invasion up the shore of Lake Michigan.

Lyme disease patients who are diagnosed early, and receive proper antibiotic treatment, usually recover rapidly and completely. A key component of early diagnosis is recognition of the characteristic Lyme disease rash called erythema migrans. This rash often manifests itself in a "bull's-eye" appearance, and is observed in about 80 percent of Lyme disease patients.

Photo and caption courtesy CDC

Tsao and colleagues are looking into potential new explanations for the uneven incidence of Lyme disease, MSU said. "The researchers plan to study how various ecological factors affect the Lyme disease cycle by simultaneously applying standardized survey methods at 12 sites spanning Massachusetts to Georgia and Minnesota to Mississippi."

Participating with MSU in the National Science Foundation-funded study are researchers from the University of Montreal, the University of Rhode Island, Hofstra University, the University of Tennessee and Georgia Southern University.

Instructions on how to remove a tick courtesy New York State Department of Health

Travel back in time to visit "The World Before Darwin," courtesy of a free webcast lecture with Everett Mendelsohn, emeritus professor at Harvard University.

Mendelsohn explored the milieu in which Darwin published "On the Origin of Species" 150 years ago, reveal its other evolutionary thinkers, and shed light on skeptics from the worlds of religion and science.

By Brian Handwerk
Special contributor to NatGeo News Watch

Charles Darwin's evolutionary ideas shook up the scientific world when On the Origin of Species appeared 150 years ago--but just what was "The World Before Darwin" like?

But Mendelsohn explains that society had begun to shift during the decades before Darwin's book was published in 1859. Political and industrial revolutions had unfolded, traditional religious orthodoxies were being unsettled, and science was also shifting with the times.

"By the time Darwin wrote there was a readiness to accept the basis of the theory," Mendelsohn said. "It was [really] opposed at the religious end, and by some I'd call scientific fundamentalists, who are those committed to a scientific creationist view of a great design in nature."

Photo of Everett Mendelsohn courtesy Harvard University

Evolution Before Darwin

Frenchman Jean-Baptiste Lamarck penned an embryonic theory of evolution in his 1809 "Zoological Philosophy," which influenced Darwin. In 1844, Robert Chambers anonymously published "Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation," which was short on sound science but "Darwin's argument at the core," Mendelsohn said in an interview.

But Darwin painstakingly gathered data for his sure-to-be controversial theory for another two decades--and was almost beaten to the punch.

In 1858 Darwin received a letter from naturalist Alfred Russel Wallace. Wallace had collected specimens in the Amazon and islands of Southeast Asia and developed his own theory of evolution--which had striking parallels to Darwin's, though Darwin had written the core of his own idea long before and shared it with some select colleagues.

"I never saw a more striking coincidence," Darwin wrote to his friend the eminent geologist Charles Lyell in June, 1858. "If Wallace had my M.S. sketch written out in 1842 he could not have made a better short abstract!"

Fear of preemption finally spurred Darwin to take his own views to the public.

"On the Origin of Species" exploded onto the scene and sold briskly--but not everyone was a fan.

Monkey Business at Oxford

The book sparked a now-legendary June, 1860 debate at the Oxford University Museum involving Bishop Samuel Wilberforce, Thomas Henry Huxley, Joseph Dalton Hooker and others.

The botanist Hooker reported to his friend Charles Darwin in a July, 1860 letter that the room was crammed with perhaps a thousand people.

"The battle waxed hot. Lady Brewster fainted, the excitement increased as others spoke--my blood boiled."

How a British satirist saw Charles Darwin in the 19th Century

Darwin himself was sensitive to the continuing and sometimes spiteful attacks on his book. "But the effect on me is that I will buckle on my armour & fight my best," he wrote to Asa Gray in May, 1860.

By his death in 1882, Darwin's well developed argument and overwhelming evidence had won that fight and convinced most of the scientific community that the evolution of species was a reality--leaving the world after Darwin a much different place than it once had been.

Darwin: Live on the Web

Later speakers will include Jonathan Weiner (October 7) and Sean Carroll (November 4) on "On the Origin of Species" itself, and E.O. Wilson on the future frontiers of evolutionary biology (November 24).

The series was organized by a group of volunteer Darwin devotees who also hope to rally 1,000,000 users to a Facebook group (http://www.facebook.com/group.php?gid=53320310123) celebrating this year's 150th anniversary of "On the Origin of Species."

Darwin Facebook campaign:

Darwin Devotees Make "Father of Evolution" Facebook Superstar
Hundreds of thousands of people from all walks of life joined a Facebook group devoted to the celebration of this year's 200th anniversary of the birth of the "Father of Evolution," Charles Darwin. Now the organizers of the Facebook group are hoping hundreds of thousands more will sign up to celebrate the 150th anniversary of the publishing of Darwin's famous book, On the Origin of Species.

Darwin resources:

Darwin's First Clues (National Geographic Magazine)

Was Darwin Wrong? (National Geographic Magazine)

PHOTOS: 7 Major "Missing Links" Since Darwin (National Geographic News)

"Instant" Evolution Seen in Darwin's Finches, Study Says (National Geographic News)

Darwin's Secret Notebooks (National Geographic Channel)

PHOTOS: How Do Species Evolve? (National Geographic News)

The Complete Work of Charles Darwin Online

Darwin Correspondence Project

Darwin Digital Library of Evolution

The Charles Darwin Trust

Intersex in smallmouth and largemouth bass is widespread in numerous river basins throughout the United States, according to U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) research published online in Aquatic Toxicology.

Fish with the characteristics of both male and female fish are called intersex fish. It is suspected that fish are changing sex because of rising levels of pollution in rivers, including pharmaceuticals, detergents, and farm chemicals.

No one knows if the disruption of hormones in fish is an indication of harm to humans who drink the same water the fish live in.

The USGS examined 6 fish species researchers from 1995 to 2004, and found that intersex was most common by far in smallmouth and largemouth bass.

Largemouth bass, left, and smallmouth, right and jumping.

NGS illustration by Hashime Murayama

"A third of all male smallmouth bass and a fifth of all male largemouth bass were intersex," USGS said in a news statement about the study. "This condition is primarily revealed in male fish that have immature female egg cells in their testes, but occasionally female fish will have male characteristics as well."

Scientists found intersex fish in about a third of all sites examined from the Apalachicola, Colorado, Columbia, Mobile, Mississippi, Pee Dee, Rio Grande, Savannah, and Yukon River basins. The Yukon River basin was the only one where researchers did not find at least one intersex fish, USGS said.

"Although intersex occurrence differed among species and basin, it was more prevalent in largemouth bass in southeastern U.S., where it occurred at all sites in the Apalachicola, Savannah, and Pee Dee river basins," said Jo Ellen Hinck, the lead author of the paper and a biologist at the USGS Columbia Environmental Research Center.

Intersex found in catfish for first time

The researchers also documented intersex in channel catfish for the first time.

"Although the USGS has already documented the severity of intersex in individual basins such as the Potomac, this study reveals the prevalence of intersex is more widespread than anyone anticipated", said Sue Haseltine, associate director for biology at the U.S. Geological Survey.

"This research sends the clear message that we need to learn more about the hormonal and environmental factors that cause this condition in fish, as well as the number of fish afflicted with this condition."

USGS researcher examining bass for abnormalities in the field in Alabama.

Photo by Jo Ellen Hinck, U.S. Geological Survey

The study, said Hinck, presents the observed occurrence of intersex in a variety of freshwater fish species, but not potential causes.

"This study adds a lot to our knowledge of this phenomena, but we still don't know why certain species seem more prone to this condition or exactly what is causing it.

"In fact, the causes for intersex may vary by location, and we suspect it will be unlikely that a single human activity or kind of contaminant will explain intersex in all species or regions," she said.

Smallmouth bass illustration courtesy U.S. Department of the Interior

 Such compounds are chemical stressors that have the ability to affect the endocrine system and include pesticides, PCBs, heavy metals, household compounds such as laundry detergent and shampoo, and many pharmaceuticals.

Yet other study sites with high occurrence of intersex were on rivers with dense human populations or industrial and agricultural activities, which are more generally associated with endocrine-active compounds, USGS said.

Largemouth bass illustration courtesy U.S. Department of the Interior

"Proper diagnosis of this condition in wild fish is essential because if the primary causes are compounds that disrupt the endocrine system, then the widespread occurrence of intersex in fish would be a critical environmental concern."

Specific river basin results include:

•Intersex smallmouth bass were found in a third of male bass at almost half of the sites examined in the Columbia, Colorado, and Mississippi River basins. The percentage of intersex smallmouth bass ranged from 14 to 73 percent at different sites. It was highest (73 percent) in the Mississippi River at Lake City, Minnesota, Yampa River at Lay, Colorado, (70 percent), Salmon River at Riggins, Idaho (43 percent), and the Columbia River at Warrendale, Oregon, (67 percent).

•Intersex largemouth bass were found in nearly a fifth of the fish examined from the Colorado, Rio Grande, Mississippi, Mobile, Apalachicola, Savannah, and Pee Dee River basins; intersex was not observed in male largemouth bass from the Columbia River Basin.

The percentage of intersex largemouth bass per site ranged from 8 to 91 percent and was most prevalent in the southeastern United States.
The Pee Dee River at Bucksport, South Carolina, contained the highest percentage of intersex fish (91 percent), with high percentages occurring elsewhere on the Pee Dee too. Sixty percent of male bass examined at the Apalachicola River at Blountstown, Florida, were intersex, 50 percent in the Savannah River at Port Wentworth and Sylvania, Georgia, 43 percent in the Savannah River at Augusta, Georgia, and 30 percent in the Chattahoochee River at Omaha, Georgia, and the Flint River at Albany, Georgia, Lower percent intersex (10-25 percent) were found in bass from sites in the Mobile River in Alabama.

•In addition, relatively high proportions of intersex largemouth bass were observed at three sites in the lower Rio Grande Basin including Rio Grande at Brownsville, Texas (50 percent), Rio Grande at Falcon Dam, Texas (44 percent), and Rio Grande at Mission, Texas (20 percent). In addition, 40 percent of male largemouth bass from the Colorado River at Imperial Dam, Arizona, and at the Gila River at Hayden, Arizona, in the Colorado River Basin were intersex.

I've heard of birds eating spiders and spiders eating birds--but who knew that praying mantises can catch hummingbirds!

The photo here proves mantises can turn the tables on birds. It was submitted to National Geographic Magazine's "Your Shot" feature and was picked as one of the "Daily Dozen" images featured on September 2.

Photo by Sharon Fullingim, published on

"Like many bird watchers in our area, we keep hummingbird feeders filled in our front yard, from April until October," says Sharon Fullingim, who submitted the photo to "Your Shot." "Black chinned, broad tailed, rufous, and calliope hummingbirds visit them, and I couldn't believe my eyes when I was greeted with this shot this week. I've seen the mantis hanging around the feeders before, but didn't quite believe it would ever 'score' lunch!"

Now the photo of the mantis catching the hummingbird has become a Web phenomenon, much like another "Your Shot" photograph, featuring the squirrel crashing a couple's photograph in Banff.

This is not the first time a mantis snaring a hummingbird has been documented. Bird Watcher's Digest published photos of a praying mantis catching a hummingbird earlier this year.

A quick perusal of YouTube finds that mantises are accomplished hunters of a range of species, including mice.

The National Geographic profile of the praying mantis describes the insect as a formidable predator. "They have triangular heads poised on a long 'neck,' or elongated thorax. Mantids can turn their heads 180 degrees to scan their surroundings with two large compound eyes and three other simple eyes located between them.

"Typically green or brown and well camouflaged on the plants among which they live, mantis lie in ambush or patiently stalk their quarry. They use their front legs to snare their prey with reflexes so quick that they are difficult to see with the naked eye. Their legs are further equipped with spikes for snaring prey and pinning it in place," says the Nat Geo profile. You can read more on the praying mantis page.

On the other hand, hummingbirds are tiny birds, smaller, and presumably lighter, than some insects.

Mantises are cool insects and I have enjoyed watching a number of them in my yard. But I'm relieved that they are not of a size large enough to prey on humans, say about as large as this one downstairs, in the courtyard of  National Geographic headquarters:

Photo of praying mantis scultpture by David Braun

Photo of shingleback skinks by Joel Pond

Native to Australia, shingleback skinks are sometimes called two-headed skinks due to their deceptive characteristics, the zoo said. "Their tail is shaped exactly like their head (minus the eyes and mouth). This feature is effective at confusing predators."

Although the shingleback skink is fairly common in the wild, births are rare in zoos. This is Lincoln Park Zoo's fourth birth since 2000.

For more photos of animals in zoos, visit Zoo News >>

Nine out of ten banknotes circulating in cities in the U.S. and Canada are tainted with cocaine, according to a news report published by National Geographic News.

"What's more, researchers were surprised to find hints that more Americans are using the illegal drug," writes our staff editor, Christine Dell'Amore.

University of Massachusetts in Dartmouth researchers collected banknotes in Brazil, Canada, the U.S., China, and Japan. A higher percentage of notes circulating in the U.S. and Canada were found to be tainted with cocaine than in the other countries sampled.

Dell'Amore was interviewed yesterday about her story by RT (Russia Today). Watch the clip below. Read the full National Geographic News story here: Cocaine on Money: Drug Found on 90% of U.S. Bills.

Video broadcast by RT

Autumn leaves of trees in North America often turn red. But in Europe the leaves mostly go yellow. Scientists think that the regional difference can be explained by the geographic orientation of each continent's mountains.

NGS photo by Robert Sisson

A new theory provided by Simcha Lev-Yadun of the Department of Science Education-Biology at the University of Haifa-Oranim in Israel and Jarmo Holopainen of the University of Kuopio in Finland proposes taking a step 35 million years back to solve the color mystery, says a news statement by the University of Haifa.

"According to the theory provided by Prof. Lev-Yadun and Prof. Holopainen, until 35 million years ago, large areas of the globe were covered with evergreen jungles or forests composed of tropical trees," the university said.

"Trees also began an evolutionary process of producing red deciduous leaves in order to ward off insects."

"During this phase, a series of ice ages and dry spells transpired and many tree species evolved to become deciduous. Many of these trees also began an evolutionary process of producing red deciduous leaves in order to ward off insects."

Scientists have determined that leaves turn yellow when the green pigment, chlorophyll, recedes prior to the onset of winter, as trees prepare to shed their leaves for the cold weather. Leaves that turn red are the result of trees producing anthocyanin, a red pigment, which some scientists think is an evolutionary response that deters insects from laying their eggs in the trees.

Whatever the reason for leaves turning red, it occurs a lot more commonly in North America than in Europe. Could it have something to do with the physical geography of the continents?

North-South Mountain Chains

"In North America, as in East Asia, north-to-south mountain chains enabled plant and animal 'migration' to the south or north with the advance and retreat of the ice according to the climatic fluctuations," said the University of Haifa. "And, of course, along with them migrated their insect 'enemies' too.

"Thus the war for survival continued there uninterrupted.

"In Europe, on the other hand, the mountains--the Alps and their lateral branches--reach from east to west, and therefore no protected areas were created. Many tree species that did not survive the severe cold died, and with them the insects that depended on them for survival.

"At the end of the repeated ice ages, most tree species that had survived in Europe had no need to cope with many of the insects that had become extinct, and therefore no longer had to expend efforts on producing red warning leaves."

According to the scientists, evidence supporting this theory can be found in the dwarf shrubs that grow in Scandinavia, which still color their leaves red in autumn.

NGS illustration by Walter A. Weber

"Unlike trees, dwarf shrubs have managed to survive the ice ages under a layer of snow that covered them and protected them from the extreme condition above. Under the blanket of snow, the insects that fed off the shrubs were also protected--so the battle with insects continued in these plants, making it necessary for them to color their leaves red."

The research was published in the journal New Phytologist.

"The Great Wave," print by Katsushika Hokusai, 1760-1849

Changes in water depth and currents, which are common in coastal areas, may significantly increase the likelihood of extreme waves, according to research published in Physical Oceanography, a journal of the American Meteorological Society.

"Stories of ships mysteriously sent to watery graves by sudden, giant waves have long puzzled scientists and sailors," says a San Francisco State University statement about the study.

Now wave model simulations by Tim Janssen, an assistant professor of geosciences, show that focusing of waves by shoals and currents could increase the likelihood of a freak wave by as much as ten times, the university adds. "Although scientists cannot predict the occurrence of individual extreme waves, Janssen's findings help pinpoint conditions and locations favorable for giant waves."

Extreme waves, also known as "freak" or "rogue" waves, measure roughly three times the size of the average wave height of a given sea state, San Francisco State says. "Recorded monster waves have exceeded 60 feet--the approximate size of a six-story building.

"Janssen's research suggests that in areas where wave energy is focused, the probability of freak waves is much greater than previously believed."

"Janssen's research suggests that in areas where wave energy is focused, the probability of freak waves is much greater than previously believed."

Wave focal zones are particularly common in coastal areas where water depth variations and strong currents can result in dramatic focusing of wave energy, the university explained.

"Such effects are particularly well known around river mouths and coastal inlets, restricting accessibility for shipping due to large, breaking waves near the inlet, or resulting in erosion issues at nearby beaches.

"Extreme examples of wave focusing over coastal topography include world-class surf spots, such as Mavericks and Cortez Banks in California.

"The identification of freak wave hot spots is also important for shipping and navigation in coastal areas, and the design of offshore structures."

Says Janssen, "In a normal wave field, on average, roughly three waves in every 10,000 are extreme waves. In a focal zone, this number could increase to about three in every 1,000 waves. In a focal zone, the average wave height is already increased due to the focusing of energy so that an extreme wave in such a high energy area can potentially be very energetic and dangerous."

Evolution of Waves

Janssen's wave simulations estimated the evolution of waves in open oceans, waves interacting with an opposing current, and waves traveling over a topographical feature such as a reef.

"The simulations show that freely developing waves maintain normal statistical properties with a small likelihood of extremes. But when the waves are focused by variations in water depth or currents, the rapid increase in energy drives wave interactions that enhance the likelihood of extreme waves."

"We found that if the focusing is sufficiently strong and abrupt, wave interactions create conditions favorable to extreme waves," Janssen said.

"When we gradually increase the focal strength, initially wave interactions are weak and statistics remain normal. However, when increasing the focal strength beyond a certain threshold, suddenly wave interactions are enhanced and freak waves are much more likely than normal. It appears that wherever waves undergo a rapid transformation, freak waves can be much more likely than we would otherwise expect."

Help choose the name for this furball and be eligible for a prize by taking part in a poll to name one of the newest snow leopards born at Seattle's Woodland Park Zoo.

• Gobi (go-bee)--Gobi Desert in Mongolia
• Boke (rhymes with poke)--Strong
• Irbis (ear-biss)--Leopard
• Vachir (voch-err)--Thunderbolt

"The cub's twin sister has been named Batu (pronounced BAH-too), Mongolian for firm, hard, honest," the zoo said.

"The naming poll invites snow leopard fans ages 18 and older to enter to win a fabulous snow leopard prize package: a 12-month ZooParent adoption (with a plush and certificate); a signed copy of "Saving the Ghost of the Mountain: An Expedition Among Snow Leopards in Mongolia by award-winning author Sy Montgomery; and a commemorative framed photo of the snow leopard cubs," said a statement released with this photograph.

The cubs were born on Memorial Day to first-time parents. They and their mother remain off public exhibit to ensure continual bonding and proper nursing, the zoo said. "Since snow leopards are solitary animals in the wild, the father is separated and is in the snow leopard exhibit with Nadia, another adult female."

The winning name will be announced when the cubs make their public debut at noon, Saturday, August 15, during the zoo' Snow Leopard Day. The annual event is hosted by the zoo and its conservation partner, the Snow Leopard Trust.

The Snow Leopard Trust was created in 1981 by the late Woodland Park Zoo staff member Helen Freeman, the namesake of the mother of the new cubs. "Through innovative programs, effective partnerships, and the latest science, the Snow Leopard Trust is saving these endangered cats and improving the lives of people who live in the snow leopard countries of Central Asia," the zoo said.

Photo credit: Ryan Hawk

The cub and its two siblings, a male named Shiley and a female named Taraji, were born on May 24 and were rejected by their mother, the zoo said.

"On June 17, a single female cheetah named Lindiwe was born to an inexperienced mother, so keepers intervened," the zoo added in a statement. "Often when a single cub is born, the mother chooses to walk away because the chance of one cub surviving is minimal."

All four cubs were moved to the care center where they are being hand-raised by keepers.

The cheetah is listed as vulnerable on the World Conservation Union's (IUCN's) Red List of Threatened Animals

Photo taken July 31, 2009, by Ken Bohn, San Diego Zoo's Wild Animal Park.

More pictures of animals in Zoo News >>

Chinese alligators reintroduced into China from the United States are breeding successfully in the wild on an island in the mouth of the Yangtze River, the New York-based Wildlife Conservation Society said today.

Photo © WCS

"The alligator hatchlings--15 in number--are the offspring of a group of alligators that includes animals from the Wildlife Conservation Society's Bronx Zoo," WCS said. "The baby alligators represent a milestone for the 10-year effort to reintroduce the Chinese alligator on Chongming Island, located at the mouth of China's Yangtze River."

The announcement was made at the International Congress for Conservation Biology, convened by the Society for Conservation Biology in Beijing, China (July 11-16).

"The success of this small population suggests that there's hope for bringing the Chinese alligator back to some parts of its former distribution."

"This is fantastic news," said WCS researcher John Thorbjarnarson, an expert on crocodilians and a participant in the project. "The success of this small population suggests that there's hope for bringing the Chinese alligator back to some parts of its former distribution."

Plans to reintroduce Chinese alligators (Alligator sinensis) started in 1999 with a survey conducted by WCS, the Anhui Forestry Bureau, and the East China Normal University in Anhui Province.

Anhui was the only remaining location where the reptiles were still found in the wild, in a small fraction of the alligator's former range. "The results of the survey were dire, with an estimate of fewer than 130 animals in a declining population," WCS said.

An international workshop on the species was held in 2001, followed by recommendations for the reintroduction of captive-bred alligators. The first three animals released in Hongxing Reserve of Xuancheng County in Anhui in 2003 were from the Anhui Research Center of Chinese Alligator Reproduction (ARCCAR).

Photo © WCS

To ensure the maximum genetic diversity for the effort, project participants imported 12 more animals to Changxing Yinjiabian Chinese Alligator Nature Reserve from North America, including four from the Bronx Zoo, WCS said. "From this group, three animals from the U.S. were released in 2007 along with three more alligators from Changxing.

"Experts reported that the reintroduced alligators successfully hibernated, and then in 2008, bred in the wild."

With a former range that covered a wide watershed area of East China, the Chinese alligator--or "tu long," which means "muddy dragon"--is now listed as "Critically Endangered" on IUCN's Red List of Threatened Species and is the most threatened of the 23 species of crocodilians in the world today, WCS added. "It is one of only two alligator species in existence (the other is the better known, and much better off, American alligator)."

Photo © WCS

The Yangtze River, where the reintroduction of these alligators took place, is the third longest river in the world (after the Amazon and the Nile) and is China's most economically important waterway. The world's largest hydro-electric dam---the Three Gorges Dam---is also located on the river.

"The high levels of development along the river have become a challenge for native wildlife," WCS said. "In 2006 a comprehensive search for the Yangtze River dolphin, or baiji, didn't find any, although one isolated sighting of a dolphin was made in 2007."

Other participants in the alligator reintroduction project include the East China Normal University, Shanghai Forestry Bureau, Changxing Yinjiabian Chinese Alligator Nature Reserve, and Wetland Park of Shanghai Industrial Investment (Holding) Co. Ltd.

 The project is being supported by the Ocean Park Conservation Foundation, Hong Kong.

By Karen Gilmour

The championship finals will be held at the National Museum of Anthropology and History.

The defending world champion is Mexico.

Photos by Tyrone Turner

DNA "fingerprinting" has become a reliable way to identify individual humans or animals. A biological sample such as blood, semen, or hair can be matched to an individual.

Eastern imperial eagle chick in Kazahkstan picture courtesy Andrew DeWoody

In the world of bird research a DNA match can be made with a feather. Each feather found in a nest or on the ground can be mapped back to the individual that shed it, much like a sampling of scat can be used to identify individual leopards, wolves or other animals.

Purdue University researcher Andrew DeWoody gathers feathers shed by endangered eagles, a technique that yields plenty of information about them.

Purdue Agricultural Communication photo/Tom Campbell

"Many birds are small, easy to catch and abundant," said DeWoody, professor of genetics, in a Purdue University news release. "With eagles, the effort can be 100 to 1,000 times greater than catching chickadees."

"Eagles can be hard to find, they often require live bait to attract and, with sharp talons and beaks capable of snapping off human fingers, they pose a risk to their would-be captors," DeWoody added.

"Instead of catching eagles, DeWoody collects their feathers and uses the small amount of DNA in them to create a tag that corresponds to a particular bird. Those tags can be used to determine population, parentage, roosting patterns and sex ratio."

"In an afternoon, you can go out and pick up hundreds of feathers," DeWoody said. "As field work goes, it's about as easy as it gets."

Most birds are studied by catching them in nets and attaching tracking devices. Researchers can then follow the birds and use radio technology to triangulate their locations.

Eagles and other large birds present several challenges, however, even beyond catching them.

"Eagles will literally fly hundreds of miles in two days," DeWoody said. "They fly in areas where you can't track them in a pickup truck."

Capturing a bird as large as an eagle can often be traumatic to the animal.

"They're wild animals that don't want to be caught," DeWoody said. "They can get hurt as well.

"Using feathers, you avoid all that."

Costs can be as high as U.S. $5,000 for the tracking technology that researchers must attach to eagles, a prohibitive cost if studying more than a few birds.

"The feathers give a good picture of recent eagle habits because they do not survive long in Kazakhstan's winters," Purdue said. "Any feathers collected after the winter thaw, then, had to have been recently dropped.

"In one study, DeWoody's team found that an area thought to have about 40 juvenile eagles living in it based on human observation actually had closer to 300."

The work also helped researchers understand more about the roosting habits of some eagles that use a nest for months at a time versus others who float around from roost to roost.

Another study showed that DNA could be used to distinguish eagle species from one another, and that imperial, golden and white-tailed eagles often utilized the same roosts at the same time.

Eastern imperial eagle chick in Kazahkstan picture courtesy Andrew DeWoody

A tiny robot with wings that flap like a bat is being developed by researchers at North Carolina State University. Built with emerging smart materials, metal muscles and elastic joints, "robo-bat" is expected to be able to maneuver in tight conditions.

The skeleton of the robotic bat uses shape-memory metal alloy that is super-elastic for the joints, and smart materials that respond to electric current for the muscular system.

Photo by Gheorghe Bunget, North Carolina State University

"Tiny flying machines can be used for everything from indoor surveillance to exploring collapsed buildings, but simply making smaller versions of planes and helicopters doesn't work very well. Instead, researchers...are mimicking nature's small flyers--and developing robotic bats that offer increased maneuverability and performance," NC State announced this week.

Detection Missions

"Small flyers